I. Introduction

脚注

1. 1)The only way for everyone to become number one and gain the recognition of others is circulation. In Daesoon (大巡), the meaning of “sun (巡)”—“to circulate”—is emphasized.
2. 2)Marx, saying “religion is the opium of the people,” regarded religion as a hypnotic false consciousness, holding that religion exists where there is pain and hardship; but Weber holds that religion and economy stand in a cyclic relationship. Weber is known as the most powerful critic of Marx, who explained the relationship of religion and economy as superstructure and base, because Weber, like Nietzsche, exposed the fictitiousness of Marx’s concept of ‘history’ by showing the cyclic relationship of religion and economy. (유석춘,『막스베버와 동양사회』, 나남, 1992, 37쪽) Nietzsche brings in the concept of economy (oekonomie) in order to describe both the human being’s fundamental self-understanding and the cyclic process in which the chaos and order of nature and of the whole of being are repeated. Nietzsche views morality from the economic standpoint of a sign-language of human emotion. For Nietzsche, the ‘economy of emotion’ was an important concept paired with the ‘will to power.’ (임홍빈,「‘정서의 경제’와 자연주의적 심리학」,『철학연구』Vol.113 No.-, 대한철학회, 2010, 291~303쪽) Just as in the Yijing mutual restraint becomes the driving force of mutual generation, in the cyclic worldview suffering becomes the driving force of development, and the economy is placed in a cyclic relationship with religion.
3. 3)As represented by the expression “the end of work,” human labor is increasingly losing its dignity. The logic that humans no longer wish to work distorts the historical fact that human dignity arose from work after the modern era. For the modern citizen acquired his dignity by working. In the present, unemployment is increasingly rising, and unemployment is the most important economic problem. (도미니크 슈나페르, 『노동의 종말에 반하여』, 김교신 역, 동문선, 2001, 15~16쪽)
4. 4)Weber, accepting Nietzsche’s revaluation of values, said that after Nietzsche’s revaluation of values it is meaningless to seek the meaning of the world. Nietzsche’s revaluation of values, represented by the words “God is dead,” transformed the human spirit more terribly than even a material revolution like Marx’s. Nietzsche’s revaluation of values exposed the meaninglessness in themselves not only of religion but even of science and history. (유석춘, 같은 책, 42~43쪽) The iron cage is a world of rationalization that denies all religious thought and recognizes only economic logic. Weber holds that science and capitalism could emerge only in Western Religion because of the tradition of Western Religion, which, denying even ancestors apart from God, denies all tradition and magic. Modern civilization, as the price of escaping the ‘garden of enchantment,’ came to be confined in the ‘iron cage’ in which everything is rationalized without any feeling. The ‘iron cage’ means, beyond merely that everything is rationalized and cold, the nihilism that even history is meaningless. Nietzsche proposed, as an alternative to the new nihilism, eternal recurrence—that is, circulation. Nietzsche’s words ‘God is dead’ are interpreted to mean that the ‘god’ of the cyclic worldview revives and the ‘god’ in the linear sense is dead. After Nietzsche, his cyclic thought of eternal recurrence developed into psychoanalysis through Freud, and was later succeeded by psychoanalysis such as that of Lacan and Žižek, and by the new historicism of Foucault, Butler, and others, dividing today’s humanities into two. The two schools, with new historicism claiming to be very different from psychoanalysis, appear very opposed, yet are very congenial. (권택영, 「영원회귀: 신역사주의와 정신분석의 대립을 넘어서」,『현대영어영문학』,한국현대영어영문학회, Vol.48 No.-, 2004. 1쪽)
5. 5)The world’s humanities, having entered post-industrial society after the 1960s, became the age of postmodernism—the age of Nietzsche, on which Weber’s circulation logic is grounded. In an age when utilitarianism and Marxism were mainstream, Weber argued that the driving force of capitalism is not money but the meaning of life. Weber is known for his difference from Marx and for methodological pluralism, but Marx and Weber maintain methodological consistency within the German mystical tradition that thinks the infinite can be grasped as the finite. Only, unlike Marx, Weber holds that those who can aspire to community are specially limited, and that a total community such as Marx’s is an illusion. (윤원근,「독일 지적 전통의 신비적 세계관과 베버의 공동체 지향성」,『한국사회학회』Vol.34 No.-, 2000, 34~35쪽) The intellectual source of the cultural orientation commonly called postmodernism is said to have been formed at the point where the semiotics after Saussure—called Nietzsche, Freud, and Marx—meet. Money, the sign, and the unconscious are the source and the instances of the postmodern that circulate within modern everyday life. (김상환,「화폐, 언어, 무의식」,『철학 사상』Vol. 56 No.-, 철학연구회, 2002. 23-24쪽)
6. 6)Scholars who study the political-science topography of world civilization hold that the cultures of the West and Islam, which had led world civilization, are showing symptoms of crisis, and that the East Asian cultural sphere, including China, is emerging as hope. (도미니크 모이시, 『감정의 지정학』, 랜덤하우스, 2010, 10-15쪽) The grounds that the growth of Korea, China, and Japan is related to Yu-Bul-Seon can be known through the aesthetics of Korea, China, and Japan. The aesthetics of Korea, China, and Japan are clearly distinguished from the cultures of Islam and Christianity. The aesthetics of Korea, China, and Japan appear as pungnyu, heung (exuberance), or han (sorrow), and musim (no-mind), related to Yu-Bul-Seon. (신은경,『풍류(동아시아미학의 근원)』, 보고사, 1999, 589~594쪽) Since everyday life best reflects culture, and aesthetics closely tied to everyday life best reflect the influence of philosophy and religion on national character, heung may be said to be close to Taoism, musim to Buddhism, and han to Confucianism. By class, heung belongs to all classes and musim to the intellectual class, whereas han belongs largely to the marginalized class, and han may be said to be an ambivalent and complex emotion. Korea, China, and Japan, though geographically close to one another, distinctively show heterogeneous aspects in Yu, Bul, Seon. If Taoism, which treasures wealth, is the basis of China, as China’s Lu Xun said (김덕삼, 『도교의 기원』, 시간의 물레, 2002, 48~62쪽), then Japan—represented by the samurai spirit that, like Buddhism, does not fear the boundary of life and death—is regarded as having Buddhism as its representative religion; and Korea, where the Seokjeon Daeje, the ritual for Confucius, uniquely remains in the world and where Neo-Confucianism was valued as a religious national ideology, is designated a Confucian country.
7. 7)World religions are seen as having emerged with the function of justifying the inequality brought about by the economy. (막스 베버, 『세계종교와 경제윤리』, 『막스베버 종교사회학 선집』, 나남, 2008, 142~146쪽) The doctrines of Yu-Bul-Seon and Christianity have much in common with rational modes of production and distribution suited to climate and natural environment. Viewing Yu-Bul-Seon and Christianity in order of temperature, there is Confucianism of the coldest northern region, Buddhism of the hottest region, and Taoism of a relatively hot region, while Western Religion had the environment of the desert as a nomadic people. In the case of India, there were no great problems in production and none in consumption either, so the world-transcending doctrine of Buddhism was suitable; Taoism was in the mild south, where production efficiency was higher than in Confucianism, so the liberal doctrine of Taoism developed; and Confucianism developed a utilitarian doctrine in the colder north. Western Religion developed a communal doctrine in the extreme situation of the desert. Once religion adapted to society, religion hardened into a view of the divine and a worldview, so that the perspective on part and whole hardened by culture and influenced the economy. Choi Bong-yeong holds that each civilization can be classified by whether it views individual and community from an individual or a holistic standpoint: Western Religion is classified as moving from a whole–subordinate worldview, which sees God and the human as a relationship of subordination, to the modern individual–conjoined worldview; China as a whole–part worldview; and India as a whole–dependent-origination worldview. (최봉영,「‘사회’개념에 전제된 개체와 전체의 관계와 유형」,『동양사회사상』Vol.1 No.-, 동양사회사상학회, 1998, 88~101쪽) Comparing East and West, the individual–conjoined worldview may be said to be similar to Taoism, the whole–part worldview to Confucianism, the whole–dependent-origination worldview to Buddhism, and the whole–subordinate worldview to Western Religion. Here ‘whole’ means the totality and ‘individual’ means the single entity. Indeed, as the American psychologist Nisbett revealed, on seeing a flying bird, Westerners remember the number of birds and Easterners remember the background. It is also said that the East values the whole, the situation, the verb, experience, and a life lived together, while the West values the part, the nature, the noun, logic, and a life lived alone. (리처드 니스벳,『생각의 지도』, 최인철 역, 김영사, 2004, 83~106쪽)
8. 8)Western Religion (西敎; hereafter Western Religion is a general term for Catholicism and Christianity) was also used jointly with meanings such as Western Way (西道) and Western Learning (西學). (염미양, 「대순사상의 서학관 연구」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2005, 11~13쪽) Weber’s complex theory of religion can be summarized largely from two perspectives. The first is whether the bearer stratum of the religion is a group of speculative theorists or a group of practical activists; the second is whether the doctrinal system is a ‘God’-centered religion of salvation or a ‘cosmos’-centered non-salvific cultural religious system. Christianity arose as the religion of the typical urban petty bourgeoisie and had a scientific, nature-transforming character, and monotheistic faith led to the denial of tradition, opening the way to scientific thought. By contrast, the characteristic of Eastern religions was that the principal bearer stratum was more often the privileged class than the lowborn class, and in the case of Confucianism it was especially a combined form of the two classes. The affluent living conditions of the bearer forces led them to pursue a world-adaptive worldview and a theodicy of happiness rather than a theodicy of suffering. Eastern religion, compared with Western religion, was a soteriology of intellectuals and an aristocratism of salvation. In summary, ascetic Western Religion consistently rationalized ‘mastery of the world,’ Confucianism ‘adaptation to the world,’ and India ‘flight from the world.’ Western Religion is a consistent practical rationalism, and Hinduism and Buddhism are theoretical rationalism. By contrast, Confucianism contained a practical rationalism amid the absence of an ideal of salvation. (전성우,「막스 베버의 유교론」, 『남명학 연구』Vol.16 No.-, 慶尙大學校南冥學硏究所, 2003. 310-314쪽)
9. 9)Graham views the thought of the Chinese Hundred Schools as an effort at reorganization following the collapse of the order of the Mandate of Heaven. (A. C. 그레이엄 『도의 논쟁자들』, 새물결, 2001, 36쪽)
10. 10)After the US–Soviet Cold War ended, the conflict of religion—which had been hidden as the root of world crisis—was revealed, and the root of crisis is now mentioned as the clash of civilizations, and that clash, as the 9/11 incident shows, is regarded as not yet over but rather further amplified. (새뮤얼 헌팅턴, 『문명의 충돌』, 김영사, 1997, 32~33쪽) Daesoon Thought too sees religion as the root of civilization (…the Way of Seon (仙道), the Way of Bul (佛道), the Way of Yu (儒道), and the Way of the West (西道) became the foundation of the cultures of every people of the world, 『전경』교운 1장 65절) and mentions that the collision among religions became the root of socio-economic problems (All the peoples of the world, each according to the transmission of their own living experience, built distinct cultures on the foundation of their particular thought; but when they came to display them, a great strife finally arose, 『전경』교법 3장 23절).
11. 11)Unlike Weber, Simmel holds that since religion is a form of social interaction, religion, like money, must exist as long as society exists. Since science and religion are irreplaceable social relations, the modern person will never fall into a relationship of conflict between religion and science, and the modern person will, after all, come to need a subjective religion. (김덕영, 「현대인에게도 종교는 필요한가」,『현상과 인식』Vol.23 No.1-, 한국인문사회과학학회, 1999, 66~76쪽)
12. 12)Modern capitalism and modern Westernized Western Religion (西敎) are exceptionally linear religious thoughts. The view of time of modern capitalism and modern Western Religion holds that happiness lies in the future and today is merely a time of preparation for tomorrow. Nietzsche criticized linear capitalism and Western Religion together as metaphysics and, in compensation, proposed the philosophy of life of eternal recurrence as an alternative. (강신주, 『상처받지 않을 권리』, 프로네시스, 2009, 410~413쪽) Like Nietzsche’s philosophy, all cultures except Western Religion have a correlative thinking that emphasizes circulation. (A. C. 그레이엄 『음양과 상관적 사유』, 청계, 2001, 264쪽)
13. 13)Weber was very pessimistic about the modern situation in which religion has been lost. Modern religion, separated from the economy, became the force that led capitalism—in which religion is the economy—but in the present, where the separation has deepened, religion has on the contrary become subordinate to the economy. (정태식, 「현대사회에서의 종교의 사회적 위치와 공공성」, 『신학사상』Vol.142 No.-, 한국신학연구소, 2008, 201~202쪽)
14. 14)One day Sangje said to Kim Hyeong-nyeol: 「The Westerner Imadu (Matteo Ricci, 利瑪竇) came to the East and sought to build an earthly paradise, but because of the long-rooted corrupt customs of Confucianism he could not easily reform them and so did not achieve his aim. He only opened the boundary between heaven above and earth below, and made the spirits—who had each firmly guarded their own regions and could not pass back and forth—come and go with one another; and after his death he led the civilizational spirits (文明神) of the East and went to the West and opened up the cultural fortune (文運). From this time the spirits below the earth emulated all the wondrous methods of heaven and bestowed them upon the human world. All the cultural artifacts of the West are modeled upon the pattern of the heavenly kingdom.」 He further said: 「That civilization, being biased toward matter, on the contrary fostered the arrogance of humanity, and in the end, by shaking the heavenly principle and seeking to conquer nature, ceaselessly committed every evil and lowered the authority of the divine order (神道); therefore the constancy of the Way of Heaven and human affairs was violated, the three realms fell into confusion, and the source of the Dao was cut off. So all the divine sages, buddhas, and bodhisattvas of antiquity gathered together and pleaded with the Ninth Heaven (九天) over this calamity of the human and spirit worlds. Thereupon I descended to the Heaven-Revealing Pagoda (天啓塔) of the Great-Law Country (大法國) of the West (西洋), made a great tour (大巡) of all under heaven, and stopping in this Eastern land (東土), came to the golden Maitreya Buddha (彌勒金佛) in the three-story hall (三層殿) of Geumsan Temple (金山寺) on Mount Moak (母岳山), where I spent thirty years; then I revealed the great Way of saving the world (濟世大道) to Choe Je-u (崔濟愚). But since Je-u could not transcend the received conventions of Confucianism and clarify the true meaning of the great Way, in the gapja (甲子) year I finally withdrew the heavenly mandate and the divine teaching (神敎), and in the sinmi (辛未) year I descended into the world.」 (대순진리회 교무부(1974), 『전경』 교운 1장 9절, 대순진리회출판부, 2010; hereafter citations of the Jeongyeong are given by chapter (章) and verse (節).)
15. 15)The reason it is important to clarify the Eastern origin of Western thought in the global cultural age is that the globalization of civilization brought about by the development of the information and communication revolution plunges each of the world’s ethnic cultures and civilizations into a serious identity crisis. (차성환, 「독일 사회과학의 오리엔탈리즘」, 『담론201』Vol.7 No.-, 한국사회역사학회, 2004, 274쪽)
16. 16)Money is a thing that comes into being and is used by the principle of circulation. It is not to be sought and used by force; a hundred years of coveted goods become dust in a single morning (百年貪物 一朝塵). (『전경』교법 1장 64절)
17. 17)Owing to the influence of evolutionism and classical economics, many people think that the monetary economy and the communal life of human beings are mutually opposed and conflicting. They also think the market begins from mutual struggle, but it is said that the market came into being in order to give to one another, and that money too emerged as an object of exchange that, amid mutual giving, was not refused. There are two kinds of economics in the world—communal economics and individualist economics—and the two must be balanced. (주종환, 「공동체의 경제학(Ⅱ) : 공동체사회와 시장경제사회의 발생사적 이론적 고찰」, 『사회경제평론』Vol.27 No.-, 한국사회경제학회, 2006, 279~280쪽)
18. 18)Today, people are managed even in domains that were formerly private. (엘리 러셀 혹실드, 『감정노동』, 이매진, 2009, 17~33쪽) Once religion disappeared, the modern person came to suffer emotional labor, selling and buying his own emotions and self-esteem, as in the colonization of the lifeworld of which Habermas spoke. Each individual invests most of his life in ‘the economy,’ yet, with grievance toward ‘the economy (經濟)’ deeply embedded, countless people commit suicide; and Korea, since the 1980s when it entered full-fledged post-industrial society, recorded the highest rate of increase in suicide among OECD countries. The Korea Association for Suicide Prevention announced at a recently held ‘Forum for the Development of a National Love-of-Life Movement’ that, as of 2011, the average number of suicides per day was 42.6, with 28.1 per 100,000 population committing suicide—more than twice the OECD average of 11.3—and that the rate of increase in suicide was also the highest. In particular, for those in their forties to fifties, more than 50% of the reasons for suicide are said to be economic reasons. (홍진표, 최순호, 「자살 예방_조사연구보고서」, 한국자살예방협회, 2011, 89~103쪽)
19. 19)The 2008 bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers, an American multinational financial firm, again gave rise to the dispute over economic ideology. The free-market economist Professor Nouriel Roubini holds that nationalization of the financial sector is the only choice for escaping the financial crisis. The emphasis on strengthening government supervision and regulation of the financial sector among the solutions presented by the G-20 leaders at the meetings held in London and Washington last April and November to resolve the economic crisis is in line with Roubini’s argument. (윤병철, 「시뮬라시옹 사회의 그늘-화폐, 파생금융상품, 그리고 글로벌 금융 위기」,『담론201』Vol.12 No.3, 한국사회역사학회, 2009, 154쪽) In the United States, the central bank, the currency-issuing institution, is still not owned by the government. (이리유카바 최, 『그림자 정부(경제편)』, 해냄출판사. 2008)
20. 20)제레미 리프킨, 『공감의 시대』 (이경남 역, 민음사, 2010) 712~718쪽. In the West, which emphasizes the individual, the idea that empathy is a fundamental human capacity was taboo. Schopenhauer’s philosophy—that the root of the human being is not Kant’s reason but empathy—was not welcomed because it touched a taboo. But with the arrival of the internet age, the capacity for empathy, or mimetic desire, is again coming to the fore.
21. 21)Just as Confucianism is called the learning of cultivating oneself and governing others (修己治人), governance of the world is the ultimate goal of Confucianism. Gyeongse jemin (經世濟民) is the principle of managing the world (世上) and thereby relieving (救濟) the people. (이상익, 「주자와 율곡의 경세론」,『율곡사상연구』Vol.11 No.-, 율곡학회, 2005, 44쪽)
22. 22)In Zhu Xi’s writings, root and branch (本末) are said to be used in two senses. One is the practical context used in the Great Learning, the theory of priority of root over branch; the other is the context used in the Doctrine of the Mean, the context of original endowment (本具). Only when virtue is put first does wealth follow; when wealth is put first, the economy goes to ruin. (이상익, 「주자와 율곡의 경세론」, 『율곡사상연구』Vol.11 No.-, 율곡학회, 2005, 50쪽)
23. 23)『대학·중용 강설』(이기동 편, 성균관대학교출판부, 2010) 90쪽
24. 24)According to behavioral economics, people tend to have just thoughts—helping others or punishing them—even at some loss to themselves. Furthermore, it is sometimes held that altruism, rather than self-interest, is on the contrary advantageous in evolutionary competition. (버나드 맨더빌, 『꿀벌의 우화』, 최윤재 역, 문예출판사, 2010, 51~52쪽) Behavioral economics is economics related to behaviorist psychology, which measures the mind by observing changes in human behavior in response to stimuli, like Pavlov’s reflex experiment. Behavioral economics proves through experiment that in human beings emotion is stronger than reason, and the unconscious stronger than the conscious.
25. 25)Whether in the prisoner’s dilemma or in any game, it is said that the good survive. (정태인, 『착한 것이 살아남는 경제의 숨겨진 법칙』, 상상너머, 2011, 89~93쪽)
26. 26)That not only law and institutions but also the moral level of society is important to the economy is drawing renewed attention today. The institutional economics school, which includes Galbraith, has long taken as its object of study informal institutions such as morality, besides formal institutions. The economy does not go well by self-interest alone, and an unjust exercise of public power is on the contrary harmful to the economy. (버나드 맨더빌, 같은 책, 2010, 51쪽)
27. 27)Economics is defined, in neoclassical economics, as ‘the discipline of how to efficiently allocate resources that exist scarcely relative to human desire,’ whereas in classical economics or Marxist economics it is defined as dealing with the problems of production and distribution related to the reproduction of the economy as a whole. In this problem of ‘reproduction,’ the ‘scarcity’ of neoclassical economics is not at issue. (박만섭, 「정의: 경제학과 철학의 접점」,『한국사회』Vol.7 No.2, 고려대학교 한국사회연구소, 2006, 34쪽)
28. 28)Adam Smith, called the father of economics, was a professor of ethics, and is said to have supplemented The Wealth of Nations by writing The Theory of Moral Sentiments together with it. Contrary to common belief, throughout The Wealth of Nations there appear remarks that today would be called anti-corporate sentiment. That Adam Smith said mutually contradictory things in the two books has been called “the Adam Smith problem,” and there has been a long, drawn-out dispute. (버나드 맨더빌, 같은 책, 51쪽) Defining the human being as self-interested is grounded in the limits of human reason. The libertarian Hayek says that we live in a swamp of ignorance. (하이에크, 1969, 민경국,「시장경제에 대한 공동체주의적 비판과 공동체주의적 경제질서」,『경상논총』Vol.17 No.-, 한독경상학회, 1998, 70~71쪽)
29. 29)아마티아 센(1989), 『윤리학과 경제학』(박순성 외 역, 한울아카데미, 1999) 18~19쪽
30. 30)Max Weber has been recognized as the foremost theorist capable of criticizing Marx’s materialist methodology. In particular, among Weber’s theories, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism was a representative theoretical work capable of criticizing Marx’s theory of the origin of religion. Whereas Marx held that religion is a false consciousness, a superstructure reflecting the order of the material base called the economy, Weber, in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, succeeded in a fatal critique of Marx’s theory by demonstrating that religion rather created the base called capitalism, and was recognized as a world-class theorist. (전성우,「막스 베버의 유교론」,『남명학 연구』Vol.16 No.-, 慶尙大學校 南冥學硏究所, 2003, 304쪽)
31. 31)Calvin’s (Jean Calvin, 1509.7.10~1564.5.27) original name was Jean Cauvin. Born into the lower class in France, Calvin created a deep and new understanding of the doctrine of Western Religion (西敎) in Geneva, Switzerland. If Luther was the figure who began the Reformation politically, Calvin may be said to have matured it practically by reflecting the achievements of the Reformation in the economy. Calvin influenced figures such as the American independence activist Franklin, and was designated by Weber as the pioneer of the ascetic economic ethic of today’s capitalism. (앙드레 비엘러,『칼빈의 경제윤리』, 성광문화사, 1985, 75~76쪽)
32. 32)What distinguishes the doctrine of predestination of salvation from the blessing-seeking faith that pursues blessings in this world is that the ultimate end lies in the next world, as in existing Western Religion, while the blessing of this world is merely proof of predestination. Therefore, the believer of Western Religion who believes in predestination, even if he receives the blessing of this world, cannot but be ascetic, like the existing Western Religion believer who prays for the next world. Blessing-seeking faith is the same as predestination as to the blessing of this world, but differs in point of asceticism. The predestinarian is absolutely alone before God. (김정계, 「막스베버의 종교윤리와 현대 자본주의」, 『산경연구』Vol.15 No.-, 昌原大學校 産業經濟硏究所, 1997, 6~7쪽)
33. 33)Even among the other monotheistic religions, the Trinity unique to Western Religion is said to have much similarity with the structure of capitalism. (나카자와 신이치, 『사랑과 경제의 로고스』동아시아, 2004, 181~185쪽)
34. 34)막스 베버, 『프로테스탄티즘의 윤리와 자본주의 정신』(김덕영 역, 길, 2010)
35. 35)The postmodern is the energy already circulating in the world of modern action, and its value. Postmodernism is characterized by circulation in contrast to the modern. (김상환, 「화폐, 언어, 무의식」, 『철학 사상』Vol. 56 No.-, 철학연구회, 2002. 23~24쪽) Postmodernism, the intellectual current that has led the world of thought since the 1980s under the term ‘post-modern,’ is also grounded in circulation. In postmodernism—represented by Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, Saussure, complexity science, and so on—it is revealed that, as with the circulation of religion and economy, things that in modern thought were unconnected (money, language, the unconscious, and so on) stand in a cyclic relationship, thereby deconstructing the fixed ideas of modernity. From the standpoint of postmodernism, Daesoon Thought too may be seen as a postmodernism native to Korea.
36. 36)Bourdieu, on seeing that the Algerian peasants had a cyclic economic view like that of the Yijing, regarded the cyclic economic view as a premodern economic view. But discovering that once the cyclic economic view disappeared the will to reform disappeared, he discovered the importance of the cyclic economic view. (가라타니 고진, 『트랜스크리틱』, 강신주, 2009, 236~239쪽에서 재인용)
37. 37)소광섭, 『물리학과 대승기신론』(서울대학교 출판부, 1999) 45~47쪽
38. 38)이광주, 「상대성이론으로 본 상제님의 권능」, 『상생의 길』 Vol2.No.-, 대순진리회 출판부, 2004, 131~136쪽
39. 39)Without a constant livelihood, one consequently loses the mind that can be constant. 『맹자강설』 (이기동 편, 성균관대학교출판부, 2007) 65~66쪽.
40. 40)Structuralism is the thought that there is a social structure independent of the observing subject or the acting subject. Structuralism is, in a word, an original thought that sought to interpret the unconscious of society through the concept of structure. Structuralism contains a strong critique of existentialism, which values the subjective decision of the human being. Structuralism exerted a wide-ranging influence: Roland Barthes in semiotics, Foucault in philosophy, Lacan in psychoanalysis, and so on. (나카야마 겐, 『사고의 용어사전』, 북바이북, 2009, 237~241쪽) Structuralism is similar to the thought of the Yijing, in which all things are structured by yin and yang.
41. 41)Bourdieu holds that the Algerian peasants had a cyclic economic view like that of the Yijing. But with the arrival of capitalism, the cyclic view of time disappeared. Once the cyclic view of time disappeared and anxiety ruled the workers, the energy for social reform disappeared. Therefore, for the modern energy of reform to revive, a cyclic economic system of production–consumption cooperatives must be created. (가라타니 고진, 『트랜스크리틱』, 강신주, 2009, 236~239쪽에서 재인용) That the linear view of time, the system of daytime imagination, replaced the cyclic view of time, the system of nighttime imagination, is said to be due to Europe’s ‘iconoclasm,’ and Europe is said to have lost, as the price, ① death, ② psychological and social balance, ③ society, and ④ God. (이희연,「‘사회적 시간’ (Social time)의 ‘기계적 차원’과 ‘순환적 차원’에 대하여 : 종교적 ‘상징’과 ‘의례(Ritual), 그리고 ‘축제’를 중심으로」, 서강대학교 석사논문, 2002, 95쪽) The system of daytime imagination and the system of nighttime imagination may be said to represent yin-yang and circulation. (질베르 뒤랑,『상상계의 인류학적 구조들』,진형준 역, 문학동네, 2007, 670쪽)
42. 42)In the case of the West, two traditions came down concerning the circulation of time. In the Olympian religion, observing the change of nature according to the change of time, an ethical moment was found; and the view of time of the Orphic religion may be said to show a periodic circulation and to display a mystical representation. (장영란, 「시간의 신화와 철학의 윤리적 정초」,『철학과 현상학 연구』Vol.40 No.-, 한국현상학회, 2009, 269쪽). Just as it is said that there can be no atheist in dire straits, the understanding of the divine of each religion has been connected with the understanding of the human being. In the case of circulation, if one understands the human being dualistically, one affirms a personal, volitional absolute being; and if one understands the human being monistically, one denies an absolute being. (이상익, 「동서 사상에 있어서의 인간과 神」, 『국학연구』Vol.3 No.-, 국학연구소, 1990, 2, 44쪽)
43. 43)Weber called the Eastern rationality that values the end or result, as in yin-yang, substantive rationality, and called the Western rationality that values process and procedure—so that anyone following the same process can produce the same result—formal rationality, and held that formal rationality became the foundation of capitalist development. But although formal rationality could outpace the East at the start of capitalist development, it shows, as displayed by the economic growth of Northeast Asia today, that substantive rationality is more important than formal rationality, and it is also being revealed that Confucian thought possesses a free thought that does not fear coercive power. (김정계, 「막스베버의 종교윤리와 현대 자본주의」, 『산경연구』Vol.15 No.-, 昌原大學校 産業經濟硏究所, 1997, 291~293쪽) Weber held that Confucianism, because of its tradition-orientation, and Taoism, because of its magical tendency, did not reach the West’s formal rationality. Korean Christianity too is said to have changed much under the influence of Taoism. (양창삼, 「도교와 한국 기독교와의 관계성에 대한 연구」,『민족과 문화』,Vol.2 No.-, 漢陽大學校 民族學硏究所, 1994, 418쪽)
44. 44)The core characteristic of Western dichotomy is an oppositional-ontological framework of contemplation, contrasted with the mutual-relational framework of thought displayed by the Eastern yin-yang method. Instead, Western dichotomy, as a self-righteous concept, can take on an ideological tendency, but has rigor. (김영주, 「동양 음양법의 상호 관계론적 사색틀과 그 비판」, 『동양사회사상』Vol.8 No.-, 동양사회사상학회, 2003. 75~76쪽) The cyclic worldview and yin-yang have, corresponding to the good side of ‘relative diversity,’ the bad side of ‘ambiguity.’ ‘Relative diversity’ may be called, in other words, ‘horizontal diversity,’ and Eastern society, as Weber revealed, on meeting vivid reality, harbored an antinomy and hypocrisy in which discrimination even more severe than in Western thought existed. Relative diversity made old men of us in our childhood and gave birth to the harsh sorrow of our mothers and grandmothers. (김영주,「서양 이분법과 동양음양법의 비판, 그리고 태극이분법」, 『한국사회학회 사회학대회 논문집』Vol.- No.-, 한국사회학회, 2001. 13~14쪽) Kim Yeong-ju proposes, as an alternative to the Eastern yin-yang method, the Taegeuk dichotomy, proposing the bipolar method and the two-sided method as alternatives. But Daesoon Thought’s dichotomy differs in being a dichotomy centered on circulation. The yin-yang appearing in Daesoon Thought supplements the circularity that existing yin-yang theory possesses by emphasizing eumyangdun (陰陽遁), which is the root of yin-yang circulation (“One day in the spring of the eulsa (乙巳) year, Sangje said to Mun Gong-sin: 「Jiang Taigong (姜太公) performed the seventy-two escapes (七十二遁) but could not perform the yin-yang escape (陰陽遁); I, however, performed even the yin-yang escape.」 (『전경』행록 3장 28절)”). (신윤기, 「人然, 自然, 天然, 그리고 超然」,『상생문화』2,3호, 전국대진연합회, 1995, 13~14쪽) If the West’s reductionist methodology was a method, beginning from the ancient Western sages and transmitted to the monotheistic God of Western Religion, of seeking the eumyangdun of the origin and unity of all things in the world, then the East’s circulationist methodology may be said to have engaged in the relational thinking of yin-yang and the Five Phases. (은남근, 『오행의 새로운 이해』,법인문화사, 2000, 20~21쪽) The French structuralist Lévi-Strauss holds that there are two sciences: a science very close to sensory intuition and a science very far from it. (이창일, 『주역, 인간의 법칙』(위즈덤하우스, 2011, 98~99쪽)
45. 45)Yin-yang was once regarded as the most important thought in the West too. The characteristic of yin-yang is relational, analogical thinking, and analogical thinking was the core of Thomas Aquinas’s proof of the existence of God. That is, the language of God of Thomas Aquinas appears as ‘analogy’—that is, yin-yang. (박승찬, 「유비개념의 신학적 적용」, 『가톨릭 신학과 사상』Vol. No.28, 신학과사상학회, 1999, 181~182쪽) With the discovery of Russell’s paradox, Thomas Aquinas’s yin-yang–analogical proof of the existence of God emerged as a new favorite of metaphysics. Coreth, Europe’s representative Thomist, holds that when the human being transcends cognition, some being is revealed. (정의채, 『형이상학』열린, 1997, 116쪽) The systems of Thomas Aquinas and of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism, grounded in analogical reasoning, are said to have much similarity. (소병선, 『주자학과 토미즘의 철학적 협연』,동과서, 2006, 203~210쪽)
46. 46)In the Jeongyeong, the Eastern-religious origin of Western civilization is clarified by the expression that, after Matteo Ricci led the civilizational spirits away, the spirits of enlightenment (道通神) too crossed over to the West through Jinmuk. Jinmuk sought to bestow the wondrous methods of heaven upon his homeland, Korea, and the East, but because of the received conventions of Confucianism he was instead cruelly killed and came to work in the West. “Afterward Jinmuk firmly told his attendant disciple, 「I shall, setting a limit of eight days, go by deliverance from the corpse (尸解) to the country of India (印度國) to learn more of the Sanskrit scriptures and the Buddhist law; do not open and close the door of the room.」 and immediately entered nirvana (入寂). Bonggok, learning of this, ran to the temple and sought Jinmuk, and the attendant disciple informed him that he was away. Bonggok, saying that there was something to look for in the room, tried to open the door; the attendant disciple stopped him, but he forced the door open. Bonggok said to Jinmuk’s attendant disciple, 「Why have you left such a corpse in the room to rot? When a monk dies, he is cremated.」 and, piling firewood in the yard, cremated him. The attendant disciple wept and tried to stop him, but Bonggok on the contrary scolded him and burned the body without leaving a single piece of flesh. Jinmuk, learning of this, returned and cried out from the air, 「You and I have no enmity whatever; why do you do this?」 When the attendant disciple, hearing his master’s voice, wept, Bonggok said, 「That is the voice of a malevolent spirit (妖鬼). Do not listen to it; you must burn it well, without leaving even a single joint of a finger bone.」 Then Jinmuk cried out, 「If you persist to the end like this, your descendants will not escape the hoe for generations.」 and, leading all the spirits of enlightenment (道通神) of the East, moved over to the West.” (『전경』공사 3장 15절) The posthumous tales of Jinmuk and Matteo Ricci show that, as in the Dangun myth, even after becoming spirits they work in connection with the human world for the building of an ideal world. (고남식,「九天 上帝의 降世神話와 地上天國」, 『대순사상논총』Vol.15 No.-, 대진대학교 부설 대순사상학술원, 2002) Jinmuk was a monk and, in the Jeongyeong, was so close to Confucianism as to recite the Compendium of Neo-Confucianism (性理大全), but seems to have had no special connection with Seon (Taoism). However, since it says ‘all the spirits of enlightenment,’ the spirits of enlightenment Jinmuk took along seem to have included all the Yu-Bul-Seon spirits of enlightenment. The Neo-Confucian-related books that Jinmuk had memorized in full and that Matteo Ricci translated were already a thought in which Yu-Bul-Seon had been integrated.
47. 47)주겸지, 『중국이 만든 유럽의 근대』(청계, 2010)
48. 48)안드레 군터 프랑크(1998), 『리오리엔트』(이산, 2003)
49. 49)개빈 멘지스, 『1434 (중국의 정화 대함대 이탈리아 르네상스의 불을 지피다)』(21세기북스, 2010)
50. 50)존 M. 홉슨,『서구 문명은 동양에서 시작되었다』(에코리브르, 2005)
51. 51)H.G. 크릴,『중국사상의 이해』 (이동준, 이동인 공역, 경문사, 1984). Creel (H. G. Creel) holds that Confucius’s influence on the West was greater than we sometimes realize. It was all the greater in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and Reichwein once described this situation by saying, “Confucius became the patron saint of the eighteenth-century Enlightenment.” (omitted below) Among the world’s thinkers, very few leave laypeople to think for themselves, but Creel defined Confucius’s claim as intellectual democracy, in that Confucius went a step further and strongly insisted that one must do so. (이상익, 『역사철학과 역학사상』(성균관대학교출판부, 1996, 211~213쪽에서 재인용)
52. 52)황태연, 『공자와 세계』(1-5) (청계, 2011)
53. 53)As seen in Hwang Tae-yeon’s research, if England, mainly influenced by the experience-valuing tendency of Confucian-Mencian Confucianism, developed into inductive empiricism, then continental Europe, influenced by the reason-centeredness of Neo-Confucianism—which was influenced by Buddhism—developed into rationalism such as that of Leibniz and the French Enlightenment. (전홍석,「근대 유럽 계몽주의에 대한 송유이학(宋儒理學)의 영향과 그 문화 철학적 의미 -프랑스 데카르트 학파의 좌파 베일과 우파 말브랑슈를 중심으로-」,『동양철학연구』Vol.57- No.-, 동양철학연구회, 2009, 304쪽). Leibniz, in his 1697 Novissima Sinica (Latest News of China), acknowledged that the morality of the Chinese was superior to that of the West. Leibniz read Matteo Ricci’s writings. (라이프니츠, 『라이프니츠가 만난 중국』, 이동희 역, 2003, 176~180쪽)
54. 54)François Jullien does not argue that Enlightenment philosophy was directly influenced by Mencius, but shows that the problem-consciousness of the Enlightenment philosophers and that of Mencius are very close. Mencian philosophy can lay the foundation of Western moral philosophy, which had been interrupted after Nietzsche’s philosophy. (프랑수아 줄리앙, 『맹자와 계몽철학자의 대화(도덕의 기초를 세우다, 루소 칸트)』,한울아카데미, 2009, 50~55쪽) Mencius presents the logic of circulation—the foundation of morality that was absent in the West and that Nietzsche sought. Eastern and Western philosophy can be compared as operation and creation. (프랑수아 줄리앙,『운행과 창조』, 유병태 역, 케이시, 2003)
55. 55)As shown by Europe’s Kosovo crisis and the 9/11 terror after the fall of socialism, it is said that once the age of ideology ended, it became the age of identity. After the end of the Cold War, conflicts in various regions became conflicts centered on identity, and the identity crisis subdivides the world into cultural spheres of fear, humiliation, and hope, darkening the international economic outlook. (도미니크 모이시, 『감정의 지정학』, 2010, 랜덤하우스, 35-36쪽) Identity confusion can be resolved by a new circulation logic capable of establishing order among identities.
56. 56)Until now, within the Western social sciences, no one has published research on religion as influential as Max Weber’s. Although before Weber, Hegel and Marx had already partially mentioned Asian religions while clarifying Asian stagnation, they fall short of Weber’s. Weber holds that from the period of the Reformation to the eighteenth century, before Chinese civilization entered, the influence of religion in the formation of capitalism was absolute. (유승무, 「베버의 대승불교 해석에 관한 비판적 이해」, 『중앙승가대학논문집』Vol.5 No.- 중앙승가대학교, 1996. 290~296쪽) Today’s sociologists, influenced by Weber, hold that Confucianism becomes the driving force of the development of Eastern capitalism. (김석근, 「유교윤리와 자본주의 정신-‘베버 테제’의 재음미」, 『동양사회사상』Vol.2 No.-, 동양사회사상학회, 1999.)
57. 57)The atmosphere of Europe, including the Geneva where Calvin lived, was at that time an age of competitively accepting the culture of China. The European Renaissance, contrary to common belief, is said to have arisen not by Europe’s own power but from the fact that the ships of the southern-sea expeditionary fleet of Zheng He, sent by the emperor of China’s Ming dynasty, anchored in Italy. Indeed, a considerable number of the inventions of Leonardo da Vinci, called the genius of his age, are said to coincide with the drawings that Zheng He’s southern-sea expeditionary fleet carried. (개빈 멘지스, 『1434 (중국의 정화 대함대 이탈리아 르네상스의 불을 지피다)』, 21세기북스, 2010, 242~254쪽)
58. 58)앙드레 비엘러,『칼빈의 경제윤리』(성광문화사, 1985) 97~104쪽
59. 59)The core of the Italian financial revolution—checks, bills of exchange, banking, currency exchange, interest loans for trade and investment, contract law, accounting law, and so on—is said to have been first developed in the East and transmitted to Italy. Luther’s Reformation too is said to be the influence of Islam’s reason-centered free thought. (존.M.홉슨 ,『서구 문명은 동양에서 시작되었다』, 정경옥 역, 에코리브르, 2005, 233쪽, 377쪽)
60. 60)Examining the economic situation before and after Calvin’s recognition of usury, Calvin’s recognition of usury arose against the background of the fall of the feudal lords, the Reformation, and the emergence of the nation-state, together with the emphasis on merchant and national interest, and led to mercantilism influenced by China, which kept the pursuit of profit and the question of wealth separate. (서광조,「공동체주의와 경제원리」,『경제학의 역사와 사상』Vol.4 No.-, 2001, 113~114쪽)
61. 61)In Daesoon Thought, enriching the nation and strengthening the military was seen as the method transmitted by Jiang Taigong and as a core variable of human history.
62. 62)Korea’s sociological community too is said to be still confined within Weber’s framework. (차성환, 「독일 사회과학의 오리엔탈리즘」, 『담론201』Vol.7 No.-, 한국사회역사학회, 2004, 276~277쪽, 297쪽) The Ideal Type is a concept Weber used to prove, against the materialism that holds matter determines idea, that idea can determine matter. Just as no triangle actually exists whose interior angles sum to exactly 180 degrees, yet one can assume such a triangle exists, so too one can assume that an ideal form called asceticism exists, and this implies that such an existence can influence matter. Interpretive sociology is a sociology holding that, unlike positivist sociology or materialism, which analyze only matter, the method of understanding called empathy is the core to understanding the Ideal Type that is the essence of society. Weber, criticizing positivism and materialism, which emphasize only material elements, demonstrated through interpretive sociology that capitalism was developed by the Ideal Type of Puritan asceticism.
63. 63)Needham, a world authority on Chinese scientific civilization who wrote Science and Civilisation in China (이석호 역, 을유문화사, 1989), holds that to call China a stagnant country is the paradox of paradoxes. From the Renaissance to the Western Industrial Revolution, the West’s inventions, whatever the Eurocentrists may say, were mostly modeled upon Chinese inventions. There is indirect evidence that most—water-powered looms, metal movable type, and so on—were modeled upon those of Korea, China, and Japan. If the fourteenth–fifteenth-century Renaissance was mainly influenced materially by China, then from the time of Matteo Ricci in the eighteenth century onward it was influenced spiritually. (황태연, 2011,『공자와 세계』1권, 389~399쪽)
64. 64)Indeed, before Adam Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations under the influence of China, the West’s policy of enriching the nation and strengthening the military was at most Machiavelli’s The Prince, the very opposite of people-based government (民本主義).
65. 65)“China is a far wealthier country than any region of Europe.” (아담 스미스, 『국부론』, 황태연, 『공자와 세계』2권, 2011, 청계, 872쪽에서 재인용). In Matteo Ricci’s eyes, China seemed perfect in everything, both morally and materially, and lacked only religion. Building a divine kingdom (神國)—a world better than Europe—seemed a matter of advancing only a few steps. (황태연, 『공자와 세계』2권, 2011, 청계, 487~488쪽)
66. 66)The Rococo culture then in vogue in the West can be seen precisely as an imitation of Chinese culture. (황태연, 2011, 『공자와 세계』1권, 425~437쪽)
67. 67)Confucius is said to have been a liberal who embodied the Mandate of Heaven. (시오도어 드 베리 .『중국의 자유전통』,표정훈 역, 이산, 1998, 188~199쪽) But that China’s May Fourth Movement defined Confucianism as the enemy of freedom is said to be because the concept of freedom that came in from the West was something—such as law or human rights—that guaranteed freedom more deeply and broadly. (김태만,「아시아경제의 성공과 좌절」,『국제해양문제연구』Vol. 12 No.1, 한국해양대학교, 2001, 9~10쪽)
68. 68)Zhu Qianzhi holds that the cultural systems of the world can be divided into three—religion, philosophy, and science—and that if India is the archetype of religious culture, Chinese culture can be characterized as philosophical culture and European culture as scientific culture. Zhu Qianzhi holds that only under the influence of Chinese philosophical culture could the age of philosophy at last arrive in Europe. (임병철,「르네상스, 계몽주의, 그리고 중국」,『서양사론』Vol.106 No.-, 한국서양사학회, 2010, 291쪽)
69. 69)Adam Smith and Laozi both acknowledge the ‘state’ but hold that society is run by a spontaneous order, which Adam Smith expressed as the ‘invisible hand’ and Laozi as the ‘Dao.’ (구민희, 「아담스미스와 노자의 자유방임주의의 비교」, 『동양철학연구』Vol.61 No.-, 동양철학연구회, 2010, 559~560쪽) Laozi’s thought of ‘non-action (無爲)’ influenced the economic thought of Confucianism.
70. 70)Adam Smith’s famous “invisible hand” is said to have come from laissez-faire, the translation of the ‘non-action (無爲)’ of the physiocrat Quesnay, by whom Adam Smith was influenced. In ‘non-action,’ the ‘wei (爲)’ means not ‘to do’ but ‘to cause to do,’ so that ‘non-action (無爲)’ means ‘the absence of causing to do’—that is, ‘freedom.’ If ‘wei (爲)’ is interpreted as ‘to do,’ then ‘non-action (無爲)’ is mystified. (황태연, 『공자와 세계』1권, 2011, 42~43쪽) ‘Non-action (無爲)’ is the key word of Taoism, but the Analects expresses the government of Emperor Shun as ‘government by non-action (無爲之治)’—like the laissez-faire regulated by an invisible hand—using ‘non-action’ as economic thought. (『논어』, 「위령공장」 子曰 無爲而治者 其舜也與 夫何爲哉 恭己正南面而已矣 (“The Master said: He who governed by non-action—was it not Shun? What did he do? He made himself reverent and faced due south, that is all.”))
71. 71)Western Religion grew on the basis of a nomadic society rather than an agricultural society like the East, and so built a nomadic community beyond a community based on familism. Western Religion calls fellow believers brothers and sisters and actually expresses a closeness like that of brothers and sisters, and so may be called communitarianism.
72. 72)Kant is said to have written three great critiques on three questions: “What can I know?”, “What ought I to do?”, and “What do I call beautiful?” For the first question, he wrote the Critique of Pure Reason on the understanding, corresponding to scientific reason; for the second question, the Critique of Practical Reason on reason, corresponding to ethical reason; and for the third question, the Critique of Judgment on aesthetic reason, corresponding to aesthetic reason. In particular, in the Critique of Practical Reason, holding that, concerning the human being’s deontological duty that cannot be derived from the Critique of Pure Reason, the human being must make a postulate to God, he constitutes the pioneer of Western deontological ethics.
73. 73)On the differences among the various thoughts, see <Table 2.2> of this writing.
74. 74)The cyclic methodology, regarding all things as being within the logic of circulation, divides things into logical quadrants and thereby discovers the lawfulness of the circulating system, so it takes the division into quadrants as the beginning of discovery. Descartes, who first introduced quadrants into mathematics, may also be said to be one instance of cyclic thinking. The relations of influence among the thoughts of each religion are detailed in Chapter II.
75. 75)Weber’s methodology of sociology was classified by Habermas, according to cognition and interest, into three—positivism, hermeneutics-phenomenology, and depth hermeneutics (Marx, Freud). (위르겐 하버마스, 『사회과학의 논리』박성수 역, 문예출판사, 1986, 7-41쪽) When Habermas’s classification is reclassified centering on symbol and ritual, the methodology of scholarship stands in a cyclic relationship. (박정진, 『한국문화 심정문화』, 미래문화사, 1990, 217쪽)
76. 76)Libertarianism refers to the libertarianism that was reborn in the present after passing through the liberalism of the medieval period. In particular, it asserts the inefficiency of Keynesian government intervention. A representative author is Robert Nozick. A book related to Nozick is Jonathan Wolff’s 『(로버트 노직)자유주의 정치철학』(장동익 역, 철학과 현실사, 2006). Nozick was the foremost contributor in rescuing liberalism from Arrow’s impossibility theorem—an economic incompleteness theorem, so to speak, akin to the ‘prisoner’s dilemma’—and strengthened still further the philosophical foundation of today’s neoliberalism. (박만섭, 「정의: 경제학과 철학의 접점」, 『한국사회』Vol.7 No.2, 고려대학교 한국사회연구소, 2006, 57쪽)
77. 77)Weber’s interpretive sociology too may be said to have used a hermeneutic method, but compared with Simmel, who philosophically interpreted and accepted Nietzsche, Weber may be said to have had a greater empirical-scientific acceptance than Simmel. (김덕영, 「니체와 모더니티 이론: 짐멜과 베버의 해석과 수용을 중심으로」, 『현상과 인식』Vol.25 No.3, 한국인문사회과학학회, 2001.) Benjamin too succeeded to Simmel’s method, but since it becomes a refutation of Weber’s discussion, it has for now been classified under positivism as corresponding to economic motivation.
78. 78)Simmel, who had been overshadowed by Marx and Weber, is today the most attention-drawing sociologist. The phenomenological sociological method Simmel commanded decades ahead has power enough to rescue the humanities from crisis today. (김덕영,『현대의 현상학』, 나남, 1999, 85~94쪽) His representative works are 『돈의 철학』(게오르그 짐멜, 안준섭 역, 한길사, 1990) and 『짐멜의 모더니티 읽기』(김덕영 역, 새물결, 2005), and in Korea many translations by Kim Deok-yeong have been published.
79. 79)Interpretive sociology is a sociology in which Weber highlighted the human experience and understanding that Marx’s materialist dialectic lacked. Weber’s interpretive sociology is recognized as a high-level sociological methodology differentiated from Anglo-American positivist sociology. As a representative work of interpretive sociology, 『프로테스탄티즘의 윤리와 자본주의 정신』(김덕영 역, 길, 2010) is cited.
80. 80)Simmel defined social interaction and its forms as the object of cognition of sociology, and so Simmel’s sociology is called formal sociology. (김덕영,「현대인에게도 종교는 필요한가」,『현상과 인식』Vol.23 No. 1-, 한국인문사회과학학회, 1999, 66쪽) When Weber and Marx explained society with macroscopic theoretical systems, Simmel did research themed on very light everyday matters, so popular that his lectures were overflowing, yet he was not recognized in academia. Simmel paid attention to the form of sociology appearing in the small everyday objects to which neither Marx nor Weber paid attention, and, using the apt method of phenomenology, laid the foundation of a micro-sociology still recognized today.
81. 81)Phenomenology is the discipline of describing things as they are. Phenomenology is to describe a thing—since some concept always enters into observing a thing—by excluding (bracketing) such a concept and making full use of the intentionality of consciousness in which the thing and I are connected as one. For example, phenomenological psychologism expresses anger as anger when one is angry, and Simmel’s phenomenological sociology describes the use of money and the individual as it is from a third-party standpoint. Phenomenology becomes a good tool for discovering new facts without falling into the limits of a particular concept, as positivism or structuralism does. The methodology of phenomenology is not a heavy theory like those of Marx, Freud, and Nietzsche but a light theory; yet, providing a fresh methodology that reflects the truth of the human interior better than positivism, it exerted a wide-ranging influence on the formation of new disciplines such as modern existential philosophy.
82. 82)Benjamin, who succeeded to Simmel’s methodology, develops Simmel’s observation that the attitude toward money resembles the attitude toward God. In the capitalist world where everything is uncertain, everything that happens in life depends on chance, like the contingency of gambling. Since the grace of God too is something the human being cannot foresee, the human being today clings to money as one clings to gambling. The reason fashion is so important is the contingency of not knowing what will become fashionable, and the department store becomes a temple dedicated to this intoxication. The society that chases fashions made according to the circulation of the economy has become a universal gambling hall. (강신주, 1999, 135~165쪽)
83. 83)The representative figure of deontological ethics is John Rawls. The reason John Rawls, though representative of deontological economic ethics, is today spotlighted as representative of economic ethics as a whole is that through Rawls the problem of social justice, hitherto concealed, could be incorporated into the very center of economics. Rawls showed that duty, justice, and the like can be regarded as quantifiable economic variables. A representative work of Rawls is 『정의론』(황경식 역, 이학사, 2003).
84. 84)Baudrillard is known as the scholar who most clearly clarified the simulacrum—that is, that the core of the modern economy is that the modern person consumes not objects but signs. A representative work is 『시뮬라시옹』 (장 보드리야르, 하태환 역, 민음사, 2012), and so on.
85. 85)Bourdieu is known as the scholar who best illuminated the aspect of modern society in which the strata of society are structurally distinguished through taste. A representative work is 『구별짓기』 (피에르 부르디외, 최종철 역, 새물결, 2005).
86. 86)Utilitarianism puts forward the greatest happiness of the greatest number as the supreme value, so that total social utility can be maximized, but the rights of the minority not included in the greatest happiness of the greatest number are ignored. Welfare economics, which asserts the maximization of total utility, may be said to represent utilitarian thought. Utilitarianism too, like libertarianism, is said to be at odds with the communitarianism of the Western Religion tradition. (이재율, 「경제학에 미친 공리주의의 영향과 이에 대한 기독교적 반성」,『경영경제』Vol.32, 계명대학교 산업경영연구소, 1999. 103, 107~122쪽)
87. 87)The meaning of ‘relationship-centered’ is the priority of ethics over economy. Capitalism is, on the surface, economy-centered, but its interior, like other societies, has society situated as its background. Capitalism is sustainable only when it brings society to the surface, and this can be called the ‘great transformation,’ as Karl Polanyi said. (원용찬,「경제학의 방법론적 비판과 문화경제의 패러다임」, 『문화경제연구』Vol.1 No.1 한국문화경제학회, 1998, 28~32쪽)
88. 88)Gift-theoretic economics is an economics that points out that the fundamental assumption of mainstream economics—which assumes a ‘self-interested human being’—is wrong. In most societies except capitalist society, the motivation of the economy is circulation through the gift, so the self-interested-human-being hypothesis of capitalist economics is an error. Representative scholars and works are Marcel Mauss’s 『증여론』(이상률 역, 한길사, 2002) and Georges Bataille’s 『저주의 몫』 (조한경 역, 문학동네, 2000), and so on.
89. 89)Baudrillard connected Marx’s political economy—through the distinction of use-value/exchange-value—with Saussure’s semiotics, which distinguishes the sign into signifier (signifiant)/signified (signifie). The concept of the symbol in the sign and signification of Baudrillard’s cultural economics was connected with Polanyi’s thesis, which criticized the application of Marx’s economic determinism even to primitive societies. Scarcity and surplus are said to be concepts valid only in the period of the great transformation in which modern economics appeared. Primitive society moves with symmetry and centrality, and Baudrillard organized this with the concept of symbolic exchange and applied it to postmodern society, giving new recognition to the symbolic value of consuming signs and images. (원용찬, 「경제학의 방법론적 비판과 문화경제의 패러다임」, 『문화경제연구』Vol.1 No.1 한국문화경제학회, 1998. 36~38쪽)
90. 90)The difference between symbolic value and sign-value is that symbolic value adds to sign-value a value such as noblesse oblige, meaning the social service of the privileged class. Sign-value and symbolic value are distinguished by whether it is conspicuous consumption or sharing. As Bill Gates recently urged the social donation of the privileged class, the donation amounts of the privileged and the potlatch, meaning the gift in anthropology, may be cited as examples of symbolic value. The core of the problem in the present may be said to be that symbolic value is disappearing owing to the collapse of community caused by the obstruction of circulation.
91. 91)MacIntyre’s representative work is 『덕의 상실』(알래스데어 매킨타이어, 이진우 역, 문예출판사, 1997), which, in today’s problematic reality of moral pluralism, called for reviving the communal virtue of Aristotle.
92. 92)Michael Sandel, whose lectures on the theme of ‘justice’ have been counted among the best lectures for twenty years at Harvard University, recently became a topic of conversation in Korea. His representative work is 『정의란 무엇인가』(이창신 역, 김영사, 2010), which made a name for itself as a bestseller in Korea.
93. 93)Communitarianism holds that the concept of the self that liberalism absolutizes is a concept that appeared after the medieval period, and, whereas social contractarianism emphasizes deontology, it emphasizes the end, as Aristotle and Hegel did, and asserts that the problem of the modern person lies in the loss of the end. Communitarianism criticizes that the value-neutrality liberalism asserts already contains a value concept. That communitarianism emerged strongly in the United States after the 1980s is regarded as the United States having been affected by the worldwide recession. (이경직, 「자유주의와 공동체주의의 만남: 한국사회와 기독교」,『기독교사회 윤리』Vol.6 No.-, 한국기독교사회윤리학회, 2003, 142~146쪽)
94. 94)Han Tae-dong was already an elder of the domestic academic community who had acquired doctorates in mathematics, theology, medicine, and philosophy in the United States in the 1960s. His lectures on 『사유의 흐름』(연세대학교 출판부, 2005)—which summarized Eastern and Western thought through the contiguity-structure theory of mathematics, conducted at Yonsei University—showed that abstruse thought spanning East and West can be simplified and organized very deftly.
95. 95)(이기동. 「한중일 유학의 과거 현재,미래」,『동아시아 유교문화와 근현대』, 제4회 대진대학교 대학원 동북아 지역연구 학술회의, 2010, 1~3쪽) Yi Gi-dong provided a detailed explanation of how the metaphysical theories of innate goodness and innate evil changed the socio-economic character of Korea and Japan today. This writing regards Korea, China, and Japan as differing in detail within Confucianism, but in the large picture of Yu-Bul-Seon, China shows a largely Taoist, Korea a largely Confucian, and Japan a largely Buddhist character; and it further regards Japan as having had the tradition of the theory of innate evil under Western influence, and Korea the tradition of the theory of innate goodness.
96. 96)Karl Polanyi is known as the scholar who founded economic anthropology, which most systematically explained the social background of the economy, against the mainstream economics that, since Marx, has regarded economy and society as separate. Polanyi, like Mauss, investigated societies other than capitalism, discovered patterns, and revealed that capitalism too merely conceals its social background. A representative work is 『거대한 전환』(홍기빈 역, 길, 2009).
97. 97)Braudel is the scholar who founded the Annales school, which drew out as a major perspective of historiography the microscopic history to which existing historiography had paid no attention; in light of microhistory, he holds that world economic history undergoes three circulations—long-term circulation, ultra-long-term circulation, and short-term circulation. If Polanyi clarified the synchronic structure of the economy, explaining different structures within the same time period, then Braudel may be said to have clarified the diachronic structure, revealing the same structure across different time periods. A representative work is 『물질문명과 자본주의』상, 하 (페르낭 브로델, 주경철 역, 까치, 1999).
98. 98)Braudel and Polanyi prove, through the early history of capitalism, that economic society is composed of three layers and that the market economy arose on the basis of society. (다베타 마사히로 외, 『순환의 경제학』, 삼신각, 2002, 68~69쪽)
99. 99)Mauss holds that morality and economy are the two bedrocks our society possesses, and that it has not yet been revealed that morality and the gift are bedrocks. (마르셀 모스,『증여론』,이상률 역, 한길사, 2002. 48~49쪽) Freud said that modern civilization suppresses desire, and as Erich Fromm said, the human being is suppressing the desire to exist through the gift. If the gift is the nature of the human being, then the present, which only exchanges, is the generation that most suppresses desire. (에리히 프롬, 『소유냐 존재냐』, 범우사, 1990, 34-35쪽) Mauss posed the question of what force compels one who receives a gift to return it, thereby enabling the Maori to maintain a gift society. Unless distorted or suppressed, the circulation of matter may be the very action that sets the human mind at ease. (브뤼노 카르센티, 『마르셀 모스, 총체적인 사회적 사실』, 동문선, 2009, 45~49쪽)
100. 100)Representative cases of Indo-European mythology are the caste system of Hinduism and Greco-Roman mythology, and among these the myth of the Trojan War. The caste system is divided into the Brahmin in charge of religion or sacrifice, the Kshatriya in charge of politics or distribution, and the Vaishya in charge of production. In the Trojan War, the three goddesses surrounding Helen are said each to represent the three functions: Hera in charge of production, Athena in charge of distribution, and Aphrodite in charge of consumption. Even the seemingly free-spirited goddesses of Greece belonged to the trifunctional system. (조르주 뒤메질,『대담』, 송대영 역, 동문선, 2006. 213~216쪽) Korea too had the trifunctional system of Jinhan, Mahan, and Byeonhan. (박용숙, 『한국음양사상의미학』, 일월서각, 1990. 223~225쪽) The trifunctional system may be said to be the universal gift-theoretic economic system of the world.
101. 101)As the connection of computers and genetic engineering with the Yijing has been revealed, the Yijing’s idea of the Three Powers of heaven, earth, and human is becoming an important mentor of artificial intelligence or complexity theory. The idea of the Three Powers, having anticipated what cutting-edge modern science has discovered—complexity systems including chaos and the fractal (相同性, self-similarity), networks, self-organization theory, and so on—is becoming the mentor of the new science. (최민자,「생태정치학적 사유와 현대 물리학의 실재관」,『동학학보』Vol.14, 동학학회, 2007,168~173쪽) The idea of the Three Powers, as an Eastern complexity-system economic thought, possesses a gift-theoretic, circulationist economic thought through the principle of increasing returns that complexity economics has.
102. 102)Complexity economics is a science that applies to economics the complexity science that derives laws by introducing minimal assumptions from the disorder commonly occurring among natural phenomena. Complexity science is composed of chaos and the fractal (相同性, self-similarity), and the business cycle and the won-hyeong-i-jeong (元亨利貞) of the Yijing appear with similar logic. The circulation of spring, summer, autumn, and winter is generated and developed by the same principle as the economic cycle. Since all complexity systems appear as the circulation system of spring-summer-autumn-winter, the logic of circulation appears in economics too. (폴 크루그만, 『자기조직의 경제』, 부키, 2002, 115~137쪽) Until now there has been research applying the Five Phases theory to literary theory and the like, but cases of applying the Five Phases theory to economic theory are rare.
103. 103)Ecological economics is an economics that harmonizes ecology, which studies the flow of nature, with economics, which studies human desire. In accordance with the environmental crisis, human desire must be regulated—increased and decreased—according to the command of nature. Ecological economics has the significance of being the first economics to argue that human desire must be restrained. Ecology is said to be the first three-number differentiation system in Western science. In the history of the dyadic relationship of human–matter, or human–God (the divine, life), the appearance in reality of the three-number differentiation system of human–matter–life (the divine) is said to be ecology. Ecological economics, crossing between nature and the human, induces a balance of production–distribution–consumption. As a representative ecological economic work, there is E. F. Schumacher’s 『작은 것이 아름답다』 (김진욱 역, 범우사, 2008).
104. 104)Against the mainstream economics that holds human desire is self-interested, the economics that shows the hypothesis of the self-interested human being is limited to Western society is gift-theoretic economics. Gift-theoretic economics begins with Mauss; except for the West, all believed that things have a spirit (靈), regarded as admirable the one who could give much rather than possess much, and severely censured the one who possessed much. Human society except for capitalism, mostly, like the country where the Alice of today’s eyes lives in a strange land, moves the world by a logic opposite to capitalism. (이재혁. 「선물의 Hau : 증답경제의 정치경제학과 관계자본.」,『韓國社會學 45(1):』 2011, 37-72쪽)
105. 105)Communitarian economics corresponds mainly to the communitarian ethics of Michael Sandel and others, famous for 『정의란 무엇인가』.
106. 106)소광섭, 소광섭 「오행의 수리물리학적 모형」,『과학과 철학』Vol.4, 통나무, 1994. Concerning the number 5, the minimal system of the Five Phases, 胡化凱 石建軍 of China in 1994 (『從五行唯一性看中醫理論的合理性』, 中醫硏究, 1994) is also said to have additionally proved it. However, So Gwang-seop’s Five Phases theory as a system of five first-order simultaneous differential equations is an incomplete model that cannot at all explain the characteristics of each of the Five Phases. (소재학, 「음양오행설에 관한 연구」, 원광대학교 동양학대학원 석사논문, 2005, 19-22쪽)
107. 107)강용균,「오행과 팔행의 수학적 모형」, 『한국정신과학학회지』, Vol.3 No.1, 1999.
108. 108)시오노야 유이치,『경제와 윤리』(필맥, 2006) 80~81쪽
109. 109)The trifunctional system appears in modern society as well as in Greek, Roman, and medieval society. Even when people do not consciously feel circulation, the three functions appear unconsciously, as in a complexity system. (조르주 뒤메질,『대담』, 송대영 역, 동문선, 2006. 213~216쪽)
110. 110)Park Yong-suk has recently continued to assert the universality of circulation through the idea of the Three Powers, through 『샤먼신화』, 『지중해문명과 단군조선』, and so on.
111. 111)Choi Yeong-jin’s research helped to establish the philosophical concepts for an applied-disciplinary approach to the thought of the Yijing. (최영진, 「역학사상의 철학적 탐구」, 성균관대학교 박사 논문, 1989)
112. 112)이병철 「역전의 삼재사상연구」, 한국교원대학교 석사논문, 2011
113. 113)Recently, the cyclic economic view is finding its underlying operating mechanism in the psychoanalytic function of unconscious symmetry. Nakazawa Shinichi, combining the circulationist economic view with Lacan’s psychoanalysis, clarified the psychological mechanism of the gift-theoretic economic phenomenon and the isomorphic structure of capitalism–the Western-Religion (西敎) Trinity–gift economy. (나카자와 신이치(2002),『대칭성 인류학』, 동아시아, 2004. 128~129쪽)
114. 114)윤기봉,「증산사상에서의 근대성 해석 문제」,『종교교육학연구』, Vol.34 No.-, 한국종교교육학회, 2010.
115. 115)이경원, 「대순진리의 근대성과 변혁 사상」, 『동학학보』Vol.9 No.2-, 동학학회, 2005.
116. 116)고남식, 『해원주제 강증산 전승연구』, 건국대학교 박사논문, 2003
117. 117)Jo Yong-gi shows, by integrating the approaches of Weber and Durkheim, that from the standpoint of the theory of the emergence of new religions—since today’s established religions, Western Religion and Buddhism, were also new religions at their birth—if, from the standpoint of the sociology of religion, the society at the birth of the established religions and the social situation at the founding of Daesoon Thought are similar, then Daesoon Thought as a new religion has a value comparable to, or perhaps even greater than, that of the existing religions. (조용기,「대순사상의 사회인식과 사회개혁사상에 관한 연구」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2001)
118. 118)Examining research that views Daesoon Thought as a domain of universal scholarship, there is, as religious-studies research, Yi Gyeong-won (『한국 신종교와 대순사상』, 문사철, 2011), and, as religious-psychological research, Go Nam-sik (「단주(丹朱) 해원(解寃) 전승(傳承)에 대한 문학치료적 접근」, 『문학치료연구』Vol.4 No.-, 2006). Park Maria’s paper (「포스트모던사회와 한국신종교 ; 포스트모던 사회와 대순진리회」『한국신종교학회』, Vol.20 No.- 한국신종교학회, 2009), a full-fledged study of Daesoon Thought as a postmodern thought, presents Daesoon Thought as a solution to the problem of pluralism following modern postmodernism. This writing too agrees with its gist and presents circulation as a means of realizing pluralism.
119. 119)김승남, 「대순사상의 해원과 인존에 관한 연구」, 대진대학교 박사논문, 2011, 10~11쪽)
120. 120)Scholars who regarded it as a new religious movement include Yu Byeong-deok, Kim Hong-cheol, Yi Gang-o, Hong Beom-cho, and Bae Yong-deok, and the related academic societies are the Jeungsan Thought Research Society and the New Religion Society.
121. 121)The pluralism of Daesoon Jinrihoe possesses modern aspects that can present an alternative to current society: a pluralistic aspect of the integration of Yu-Bul-Seon on the doctrinal side; of the harmony of traditional ritual and modern thought realizing the value of women on the side of religious ritual and organization; and of simultaneously performing the roles of clergy and believer in the methodology of cultivation. (박마리아,「포스트모던사회와 한국신종교 ; 포스트모던 사회와 대순진리회」『한국신종교학회』, Vol.20 No.- 한국신종교학회, 2009, 25쪽 ; 「한국신종교와 여성 : 에코페미니즘(Ecofeminism)의 관점으로 본 대순진리회의 여성관」『한국신종교학회』, Vol.22 No.- 한국신종교학회, 2010).
122. 122)최준식, 『한국의 종교, 문화로 읽는다』1,2,3 (사계절,2004)
123. 123)나권수, 「대순사상에 나타난 지상신선사상연구」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2008
124. 124)Representative research related to the unity of the three teachings includes the research of Kim Tak and Choi Jun-sik, but it was not able to connect it with the core proposition of Daesoon Thought of spring-summer-autumn-winter. Kim Tak, in his doctoral dissertation at the Academy of Korean Studies, 『증산 강일순의 공사사상』(1995), revealed the sources of vast Chinese-classical passages related to the Jeongyeong, clarifying the tradition of the unity of the three teachings of Yu-Bul-Seon in Daesoon Thought. Choi Jun-sik, in his doctoral dissertation at Temple University in the United States, 『중국과 한국의 삼교합일론 발달사』 (지문당,2009), discussed the syncretic character of Daesoon Thought and Yu-Bul-Seon, obtaining the first overseas doctorate related to Daesoon Thought. As writings that connect Daesoon Thought with its core proposition—that all things circulate as spring-summer-autumn-winter and that the seemingly automatic circulation is possible through the intervention of an absolute being like ‘earth (土)’—the writings of Shin Yun-gi are representative, though not yet published as formal papers.
125. 125)김태수, 「대순사상의 민족주의적 요소에 대한 재해석」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2001
126. 126)진정애, 「대순사상에서의 심론연구」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2005
127. 127)Research that views Daesoon Thought as a Korean frame includes Yi Gyeong-won (『한국의 종교사상』,문사철, 2010) and Go Nam-sik (「해원설화에 대한 문학치료적 접근」,『문학치료연구』Vol.6 No.-, 한국문학치료학회, 2007).
128. 128)(고남식, 「단주(丹朱) 해원(解寃) 전승(傳承)에 대한 문학치료적 접근」, 『문학치료연구』Vol.4 No.-, 2006) Freud reduced all relationships—including all human relationships, down to the relationships of things—to the relationship of father and son through sex (性) grounded in yin-yang. This has something in common with the way today’s Yijing connects all things as the relationship of father and son. The Yijing clarifies that, through a personal being called the sage by whom the will of heaven and earth—a personal being—is realized and proclaimed, heaven-earth and the human being are positioned in the relationship of parent and child. (이현중,「정역의 干支 度數 원리(1)」,『동서철학연구』Vol.27 No.-, 한국동서철학회, 1998)
129. 129)정지윤, 「재소자 교정교육에 대한 종교적 대안연구」대진대학교 석사논문, 2001
130. 130)김태수, 「헤겔 정신현상학에 나타난 ‘자기-타자화’의 음양의 변증법」, 2009 대순문예,대순진리회 여주도장 홈페이지.
131. 131)김승남, 「대순사상의 해원과 인존에 관한 연구」, 대진대학교 박사논문, 2011
132. 132)Kim Bong-seop develops a thesis with the same argument as this writing, holding that Daesoon Thought is an alternative that can resolve the contradictions that modern communitarianism possesses, and compared modern communitarianism and the communitarianism of Daesoon Thought in detail. This writing, following Kim Bong-seop’s research, paid attention to the economic thought and the principle of circulation that Daesoon Thought possesses. (김봉섭, 「현대사회 공동체 이념으로서의 대순 사상에 관한 연구」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2010)
133. 133)이 현, 「조선후기 종교적 근대성과 평등이념의 전개양상」, 대진대학교 석사논문, 2010
134. 134)박경혜, 「대순사상의 생명관 연구」. 대진대학교 석사논문, 2001
135. 135)김태수, 「환경윤리의 도덕적 지위 문제에 관한 대순사상적 고찰」, 『제5회 대진대학교 대학원 학술대회』, 대진대학교 대학원, 2011