V. A Comparison of Autogenous Modernity in Donghak and Daesoon Thought

Zhu Xi (Juja) says, "Matters related to Gwishin (spirits) are inherently of secondary importance; Gwishin, having no form or shadow, are difficult to understand, so there is no need to forcibly try to understand them; one should first approach the urgent necessities of daily life and study those." The discourse on Gwishin (Gwishin-ron) is not a discourse at the level of the Sohak (Small Learning), where one learns 'Sa' (affairs/practice) with the body, but a discourse at the level of the Daehak (Great Learning), where one investigates 'I' (principle) with the mind.76) Song-Ming Neo-Confucianism (Songmyeong-ihak) is broadly divided into the Zhu Xi school (Jujahak) and the Wang Yangming school (Yangmyeonghak), and the two are sometimes seen as contradictory; however, in reality, although they differ in terms of their methodology of 'study' (Gongbu-ron), they do not differ in terms of their 'ontology' (Bonche-ron). Ontologically speaking, the 'substance (Che) of I (Principle)' becomes Mu (Nothingness/Non-being) and Heo (Void/Emptiness).77)

In the end, the view of the earthly realm in Daesoon Thought appears as the importance of 'To' (Earth element), which signifies the center of yin-yang and the Five Elements. 'Toiling without merit (no-i-mugong)' and 'the success of Heaven and Earth (cheonji-seonggong)' are two different theories expressing the role of Gucheon as To. The period before the human incarnation and descent is expressed as 'toiling without merit,' and the period after as 'the success of Heaven and Earth.' 78)

Consequently, the Donghak view of Earth (Jigwan) is also understood as a form that emphasizes the life-thought (Saengmyeong-sasang) of the earth. As Donghak is re-examined as a life-thought, Donghak's emphasis on the earth is also being re-examined. It is said that today's organic farming methods in Korea also originated from the earth-centric thought of Donghak. However, in Donghak thought itself, the importance of the earth, equal to that of heaven, is not actually emphasized. Here, Donghak refers only to early Donghak, following the Jeon-gyeong (Daesoon Scriptures) of Daesoon thought, so only early Donghak will be considered. What is mainly referred to as Donghak in the Jeon-gyeong are the Donghak Gasa (Donghak Songs/Lyrics) and Su-un Gasa (Su-un's Songs/Lyrics).

Cheonji-seonggong (Success of Heaven and Earth) is a concept meaning that Heaven and Earth divide roles to accomplish the work, and it is a term that appears in Daesoon thought, which, unlike Donghak thought, emphasizes Sinmyeong (spirits/gods). Even in the traditional East Asian view of Earth (Jigwan), the earth, as in the term 'Cheonji' (Heaven-and-Earth), superficially appears as equal to heaven. Representatively, Cheonwon-jibang (Heaven is round, Earth is square) does not refer to the erroneous claim of geocentrism (Cheondongseol) revealed by heliocentrism (Jidongseol) that the sky is round, but rather it is an abbreviation for "Cheondo-jiwi-won Jido-jiwi-bang" (The Dao of Heaven is called Round, the Dao of Earth is called Square), and it can be said to refer to the one-dimensional character of "Ju" (宙), representing time, and the two-dimensional character of "U" (宇), representing space. The heaven of the I Ching (Juyeok) is called "Geon" (乾), and this "Geon" (meaning 'dry') signifies the dry attribute of time, which performs the function of "Sae Eul" (乙, the second heavenly stem, often associated with budding/new growth).

Daesoon thought reifies the traditional view of Earth (Jigwan) through the Cheonji-gongsa (Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth), which changes Eogeum-jonyang (Suppressing Yin and Venerating Yang) to Jeong-eum-jeong-yang (Correct Yin and Correct Yang). Consequently, the earth is also realigned, just like the heavens (Cheonmun, astronomy/celestial patterns). Daesoon thought starts from the Samshinsan (Three Divine Mountains), the Bumo-san (Parent Mountains) of Hoemun-san and Moak-san are put in order, and the Hyeoljari (Acupoints/Vital Spots) of the San-wang (Mountain King) and Hae-wang (Sea King) are aligned.79) Jisang-cheonguk (Earthly Paradise), the result of the Yin-Yang virtuous concordance (Eumyang-hapdeok) of Heaven and Earth, is the term representing the Daesoon view of the Earthly Realm (Jigyegwan), where the Three Realms (Samgye) act correlatively.80)

The fact that the Donghak Ji-In (Earth-Human) relationship of Bulyeongiyeon (Not-so, yet-so), after being conceived (Potae), is nurtured (Yangsaeng) is largely due to the revitalization of Daesoon thought's Jigye-gongsa (Reordering Work of the Earthly Realm), which reassigned the Samshinsan and the Bumo-san. In Daesoon thought, the Samgye-chakran (Disorder of the Three Realms) manifests in the Ji-In (Earth-Human) relationship as world wars due to Jigi-bultong (non-communication of Earth's Ki/energy) and human arrogance stemming from material civilization. The disharmony of Jigi (Earth's Ki), identified in Daesoon thought as the cause of world disputes, is unified through the Jigi-tongil-gongsa (Reordering Work for the Unification of Earth's Ki). After Matteo Ricci opened the exchange between Eastern and Western Sinmyeong (spirits/gods), modern civilization was pioneered through the exchange between the Jihamunmyeong-sin (Underground Civilization Spirits) and the Cheonsang (Heavenly Realm) and their bestowal of grace upon the Inse (Human World). However, modern civilization, due to human arrogance and an imbalance toward material civilization, resulted in the crisis of 'Cheonha-jinmyeol' (Annihilation of the World). Therefore, Daesoon thought seeks to construct the Ji-In (Earth-Human) relationship of the Jisang-sinseon (Earthly Immortal) as a Dosul-munmyeong (Civilization of Daoist Magic/Arts) over material civilization, through the Jigye-gongsa (Reordering Work of the Earthly Realm).81)

Choe Su-un perceived Japan as the enemy (Wonsu) that invaded our country during the Imjin War (Japanese invasions of Korea in 1592-1598) and, therefore, as an object of revenge that must be destroyed.82) On the other hand, Jeungsan (Gang Il-sun) saw that Japan, contrarily, had formed grievances (Won) during the Imjin War because they failed to enter Seoul, many innocent lives were killed, and furthermore, they taught Joseon the method of rice planting; therefore, to resolve this, he conducted a Gongsa (Reordering Work) entrusting Joseon to Japan.83) Furthermore, Jeungsan said not to oppose Japan but to be obedient, and prophesied that Japan would be defeated in the future and return [home] empty-handed, without even receiving wages for their work.84) Many existing studies also interpret Jeungsan's Gongsa of temporarily entrusting Joseon to Japan in order to protect the Joseon people from Western powers as showing that Jeungsan temporarily utilized Imperial Japan's theory of hegemony in East Asia.85)86)

Comparison of Autogenous Modernity in Views of Humanity

Innaecheon (人乃天) and Sinin Johwa (神人調化)

"Innaechoen" (人乃天, Man is Heaven), meaning "Man is Heaven," is not an expression used by Su-un in early Donghak; however, it is evaluated as a concept that conforms to Western modernity by excluding the transcendent aspects and maximizing the immanent aspects of the Cheon-In (Heaven-Human) and Ji-In (Earth-Human) relationships in Donghak thought, which are characterized by Naeyu-sinryeong (Indwelling Spirit) and Oeyu-gihwa (Externalized Ki-transformation). In Cheondogyo (Religion of the Heavenly Way), which interpreted Su-un's thought after the rise of Cheondogyo, "Innaechoen" is used as the phrase representing the modernity of Donghak thought. The reason "Innaechoen" was designated as the term representing the modernity of Donghak thought was because of the egalitarian ideology it implies. "Innaechoen"—the idea that even the Baekjeong (the lowest caste), women, and children could become Heaven—was a very advanced ideology for a pre-modern society where only the "Cheonja" (Son of Heaven/Emperor) could be Heaven, as it asserted equality in the human world, excluding the world of spirits (Sinmyeonggye).87)

Daesoon thought saw "Haewon" (Resolution of Grievances) as the reason Donghak thought failed, despite the "Innaechoen" ideology receiving much support. In Daesoon thought, egalitarianism was not something that came instantaneously, like a revolution, but was a gradual process that came through Haewon and the resulting Sangsaeng (Mutual Beneficence).

Furthermore, Daesoon thought does not express that "Man is Heaven." In Daesoon thought, Heaven (Haneul) means not only the existing heaven divided from earth (Cheonji), but also Heaven as the Guchon (Ninth Heaven) that presides over all things in the universe (Samra-mansang). In Daesoon thought, which emphasizes the grace of Heaven, humans cannot become beings equal to Heaven. However, in Daesoon thought, where the incarnation into a human body occurred, human status is elevated in a different way than in Donghak thought. The thought of Su-un in early Donghak was also "Osim-jeuk-Yeosim" (My heart is precisely your heart), not "Innaechoen." Daesoon thought, on the contrary, points to humanity and modernity—which have forgotten the grace of Heaven and Earth (Cheonji)—as the cause of the problems, and insists on respecting Heaven and Earth.

事之當旺在於天地 必不在人

然無人無天地 故天地生人 用人

以人生 不參於天地用人之時 何可曰人生乎 88)

The example above clarifies that the beginning and end of affairs reside in Heaven and Earth, not in Man. Ultimately, Daesoon thought shows that in order to achieve the egalitarian world that Innaechoen aims for, Boeun (Grateful Reciprocation of Favors) to Heaven and Earth and the Haewon (Resolution of Grievances) of humanity for that purpose must take precedence, and that Haewon, not revolution (Byeonhyeok), is the true modernity.89)

Therefore, what Daesoon thought presents in response to Innaechoen (which aims for revolution) is the harmony of spirits/gods (Sin) and humans (In), namely, Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings). Here, Johwa (調化, Harmonious Transformation/Union) is a compound word formed by combining 'Jo' (調) from Johwa (調和, Harmony/Accord) and 'Hwa' (化) from Johwa (造化, Creation/Transformation); it is a word that does not exist in conventional dictionaries and appears only in Daesoon thought. Johwa (調化) can be said to be a combination that gathers only the advantages of Johwa (調和, Harmony) and Johwa (造化, Creation).90)

The relationship between Sinmyeong (spirits/gods) and humans in Daesoon thought, which does not appear in Donghak thought, is the core point of difference in the indigenous modernity of the human view (Ingwan) between Donghak thought and Daesoon thought. Donghak thought saw the cause of the problem of modernity as a human problem, namely 'Gakja-wisim' (Each acting for oneself), but in Daesoon thought, the cause of the problem of modernity is human foolishness in not knowing the grace of the Cheonjisinmyeong (Spirits of Heaven and Earth). The perspective of Daesoon thought reflects the perspective of the Guchon (Ninth Heaven). In Daesoon thought, thinking of humans as beings equal to Heaven, like in Innaechoen, is human arrogance and foolishness. If humans do not know the grace of Heaven and Earth or act contrary to Heaven and Earth, no work can succeed. Therefore, Daesoon thought regards Emperor Yao, who made humans aware of the grace of Heaven and Earth, as a very exemplary model of humanity.91)

On the 23rd day of the twelfth lunar month of the Jeongmi year, Sangje visited Shin Gyeong-su at his house. Sangje spoke about Yao's "observing the sun, moon, and stars, and respectfully bestowing the seasons upon the people" (yeoksang ilwolseongsin gyeongsuinsi), saying, "Heaven and Earth, without the sun and moon, are an empty shell; the sun and moon, without a person of wisdom (ji-in), are an empty shadow. Because Dang Yao (Emperor Yao) discerned the laws of the sun and moon and taught them to the people, the grace of Heaven and the principles of Earth were finally bestowed upon humanity." At this time, Sangje taught, "The sun and moon govern all things without selfishness; the rivers and mountains have the Dao and receive hundreds of practices (日月無私治萬物 江山有道受百行)," and He composed the Five Mantras (Oju), calling them the "Essence (Jinaek) of Heaven and Earth," and the Five Mantras are as follows.

新天地家家長歲 日月日月萬事知

侍天主造化定永世不忘萬事知

福祿誠敬信 壽命誠敬信 至氣今至願爲大降

明德觀音八陰八陽 至氣今至願爲大降

三界解魔大帝神位願趁天尊關聖帝君92)

In the example above, it is said that Emperor Yao's greatest contribution lies in conveying "the grace of Heaven and the principles of Earth" to humankind, that is, in making humans aware of the grace of Heaven and Earth. In contrast to Innaechoen, Daesoon thought instead presents the harmony of spirits/gods and humans, namely Sin-in-uido (Mutual guidance and reliance between Divine Beings and Human Beings), as humanity's greatest task.93)

In Donghak thought, Cheonju (Lord of Heaven) and Sangje (Supreme Ruler) are mentioned, but expressions regarding Sinmyeong (spirits/gods) or Sindo (Dao of spirits/gods) hardly appear. This also applies to the Samjae (Three Powers), and the expression 'Samgye' (Three Realms), which presupposes the Sinmyeonggye (World of Spirits/Gods), also hardly appears in Donghak thought. Daesoon thought transcends the limits of the Indo (Human Dao) presented by Donghak thought, by means of the Sindo (Dao of spirits/gods) which Donghak thought could not accept due to the limitations of Confucianism (Yugyo-ui Jeonheon).

Daesoon thought brings the expression 'Samgye' (Three Realms) to the forefront in response to human arrogance, such as Innaechoen. Humans do not become equal to Heaven; rather, the Guchon (Ninth Heaven) changes the old heaven into a new heaven. Even among the denominations that venerate Gang Il-sun (Jeungsan), Daesoon thought is an ideology that particularly brings the Samgye (Three Realms) to the forefront, in that the term 'Daesoon' (Great Itineration) is an abbreviation for "Samgye-Daesoon Gaebyeok-Gongsa" (The Reordering Work of the Great Opening of the Three Realms through Great Itineration).

If Daesoon thought is explained centering on the Three Realms (Samgye), it is a series of processes: the Three Realms, harmonized by Sangje, fall into disorder (Samgye-chakran) due to human grievances (Wonhan); furthermore, as they reach the state of 'Samgye-jinmyeol' (Annihilation of the Three Realms), Sangje, upon the appeal of the Sinseong (Divine Sages), Bul (Buddhas), and Bosal (Bodhisattvas), diagnoses the Three Realms through the Samgye-Daesoon (Great Itineration of the Three Realms) and then achieves the Samgye-Gaebyeok (Great Opening of the Three Realms) through the Samgye-gongsa (Reordering Work of the Three Realms); this is the Samgye-Daesoon, and the ideology accompanying it is Daesoon thought.

The Three Realms of Daesoon Jinrihoe, which are operated by Sinmyeong (spirits/gods), are operated by countless Sinmyeong. In Daesoon thought, the reason the Three Realms are operated by Sinmyeong is that Sinmyeong are beings who are "perfect" (or "extreme") in truth (Jinri-e Jigeukhan).

One day in the first month of the Jeongmi year, while Kim Gwang-chan and Shin Won-il were attending Sangje, Sangje said to them, "Spiritual beings (gwisin) are utmost in truth (jilli), so I judge the Cheonjigongsa (Work of Reordering Heaven and Earth) together with them," and posted a writing on the wall as follows.94)

In the example above, "being perfect in truth" means being faithful to the roles and boundaries of the Sinmyeong. Unlike humans, who possess both Hon (spirit-soul) and Baek (body-soul) and thus have diversity but cannot be faithful to only one role, in Daesoon thought, Sinmyeong are beings possessing only one of Hon or Baek; therefore, they can be faithful to one role and can operate Heaven and Earth (Cheonji). Therefore, in Daesoon Thought, the harmony between Sinmyeong (divine beings) who operate the Three Realms and human beings becomes the core of the new operation of Heaven and Earth.

In Daesoon Thought, the Three Realms are not only related to the operation of Heaven and Earth but also have a close relationship with modern science and technology. In the Daesoon view of the Three Realms, the Heavenly Realm includes the Celestial Realm and the Spirit Realm (Myeongbu), and the Earthly Realm includes the Subterranean Realm; among these, the Celestial and Subterranean Realms are the origin of modern scientific civilization, and the Spirit Realm is where human beings' gratitude (Boeun) for the Sincerity, Reverence, and Faith (Seong, Gyeong, Sin) of Heaven and Earth is evaluated.

One day, Sangje said to Kim Hyeong-ryeol, "The Westerner Matteo Ricci (Yi Madu) came to the East and tried to establish an earthly paradise, but he could not achieve his goal because the deep-rooted evil customs of Confucianism made reform difficult. However, he opened the boundaries between the Celestial and Subterranean Realms, allowing the divine beings (Sinmyeong), who had firmly guarded their respective regions and could not cross over, to interact, and after his death, he took the civilization divine beings (Munmyeongsin) of the East to the West and opened the way for cultural development (Mun-un). From this, the Subterranean divine beings (Jihasin) emulated all the wondrous methods of the Celestial Realm and bestowed them upon the human world. All the cultures and materials of the West are modeled after the Kingdom of Heaven," He said.95)

This excerpt first shows the Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings) of Daesoon Thought, where the interaction between the celestial divine beings and the subterranean divine beings operates Heaven and Earth and also changes the Human Realm. Second, it shows that in Daesoon Thought, the Heavenly Realm includes the Celestial Realm where the celestial divine beings reside, and the Earthly Realm includes the subterranean divine beings (Jihasin). Third, it shows the interaction of the Three Realms, indicating that the exchange between celestial and subterranean divine beings is closely related to the Human Realm, and that the boundary between the Celestial and Subterranean Realms can be changed by figures who existed in the Human Realm.

Sangje said, "In the Seoncheon (Former World), all human affairs and things were governed by Sangguk (mutual conflict/overcoming), causing grievances to accumulate and form knots, filling the Three Realms; thus, Heaven and Earth lost their constant way (Sangdo), giving rise to all sorts of disasters, and the world became tragic." "Therefore, I intend to rectify the Dosu of Heaven and Earth, harmonize the divine beings (Sinmyeong), resolve the grievances of all time, and establish the Seon'gyeong (Immortal Realm) of the Hucheon (Later World) through the Dao of Sangsaeng (mutual beneficence), thereby saving the people of the world." "In all matters, great or small, the grievances must be resolved starting from the Sindo (Dao of Gods/Divine Beings)." "First, if the Dosu is firmly established and harmonized, that will become the foundation, and human affairs (Insa) will be accomplished spontaneously." "This is precisely the Samgye-gongsa (Work of the Three Realms)," He said to Kim Hyeong-ryeol, and He began a part of it, the Myeongbu-gongsa (Work of the Realm of Judgment).96)

This excerpt first shows that Heaven, Earth, and human beings mutually grow and foster each other's growth. Second, it shows that the Spirit Realm (Myeongbu) is where the divine beings of Heaven and Earth evaluate human beings. However, it shows that this mutual growth was not properly evaluated due to human affairs and material objects dominated by mutual conflict, leading only to increased grievances, which became the cause of the confusion in the Three Realms. Third, the excerpt shows that the Spirit Realm belongs to the Heavenly Realm and is the place where the affairs of the Three Realms are synthesized.

The Daesoon view of the Three Realms, where even human destiny in the Spirit Realm and scientific technology, beyond the operation of the universe, are determined by the divine beings of Heaven and Earth, suggests that Heaven and Earth take precedence in human affairs, extending to the determination of all matters.

事之當旺在於天地 必不在人97),

萬事分已定 浮生空自忙98)

Among these two verses, the first verse clearly shows that in the Daesoon view of the Three Realms, Heaven and Earth have priority over human beings in the order of affairs. It shows that the relationship between Heaven and Earth and human beings is similar, just as parents take precedence because even if a child becomes more outstanding than the parents, it is due to the parents' grace. Furthermore, the second verse shows that even if a human being is more successful than Heaven and Earth, this is already predetermined by Heaven and Earth.

The Daesoon view of the Human Realm, as examined through the discussions so far, is as follows. First, the Daesoon view of the Three Realms consists of Sangje of Gucheon (the Highest Heaven) as the supreme God, and the Three Realms of Heaven, Earth, and Humanity, which are harmonized by Sangje. In the Daesoon view of the Three Realms, Heaven and Earth cultivate and nurture all things on behalf of Sangje, while Sangje observes and oversees all heavens (Gwangam-mancheon). Gwangam-mancheon (observing and overseeing all heavens), which means observation, shares similarities with the concept of a hidden god, but it differs in that it specifically involves the medium of Heaven and Earth.99)

Heaven and Earth also entrust tasks to countless divine beings, each responsible for specific parts, when cultivating and nurturing the myriad things of the universe. Heaven and Earth meet through ascent and descent; since Heaven and Earth are Yin and Yang, Heaven plans and Earth implements. Therefore, as shown in Geonjeong-Gonsun (Heaven determines and Earth follows), the celestial civilization plans, and the subterranean divine beings emulate and bestow it upon the human world.100) Heaven and Earth cultivate and nurture human beings with utmost Sincerity, Reverence, and Faith (Seong, Gyeong, Sin), devoted to truth.101) Human beings, who receive life, longevity, and blessings through the cultivation and nurturing of Heaven and Earth with utmost Sincerity, Reverence, and Faith, have an obligation to reciprocate (Boeun) with Sincerity, Reverence, and Faith, just like Heaven and Earth.102) However, human beings, having become capable of contending with Heaven and Earth through modern science, betray Heaven and Earth, deny the existence of the divine beings (Sinmyeong) of Heaven and Earth, and exploit and conquer Heaven and Earth.103) Consequently, an era of confusion in the Three Realms ensues, where Heaven and Earth also seek only to kill human beings, leading Sangje to inspect the human world (Daesun) in response to the appeals of divine saints, Buddhas, and Bodhisattvas, first bestowing the Heavenly Mandate (Cheonmyeong) and Divine Teaching (Singyo) upon Su-un, resulting in the emergence of Donghak Thought.104) Although Su-un received the Heavenly Mandate and Divine Teaching, he could not overcome the limitations of Confucianism, leading Sangje to directly descend into the human world in human form through the Three Realms; this becomes the background for the Daesoon view of the Human Realm, characterized by the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje).105)106)107)108)109)

Although it is clearly revealed in Daesoon Thought that the existence and roles of the Three Realms, filled with divine beings, are based on Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, both the East and the West have, since antiquity, posited a Heavenly Realm and an Earthly Realm filled with divine beings that intervene in the Human Realm, much like in Daesoon Thought. The Daesoon view of the Three Realms actually shares many common elements with pre-modern Eastern and Western cosmologies. Therefore, since the Daesoon view of the Three Realms also includes Heaven, Earth, Humanity, and the Spirit Realm (Sinmyeong-gye), notions of the Heavenly, Earthly, and Human Realms from all times and places can also be collectively referred to as the Three Realms and compared. The Daesoon view of the Three Realms is close to a revitalized cosmology that integrates ancient Eastern and Western cosmologies—discarded by modernity—with modern science.

If the Daesoon view of humanity described above is expressed concisely, it can be called a view of humanity based on Sin-in-uido (Mutual Guidance between Divine Beings and Human Beings). If Donghak Thought achieved a liminality from the Western ontological view of the Three Realms to a generative (process-oriented) view of the Three Realms, Daesoon Thought revitalized the relationship between divine beings and human beings inherent in the generative view of the Three Realms through Sin-in-uido.

Buryeon-giyeon (Not so, yet so) and Seongsa-jaein (Accomplishment of affairs lies with human beings)

The conclusive difference between the Donghak and Daesoon views of humanity is Seongsa-jaein (Accomplishment of affairs lies with human beings). Seongsa-jaein in Daesoon Thought means that the determination of an affair's success, which previously rested with Heaven, is now shifted to human beings. The difference between the emergence of the Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) in Donghak Thought and the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje) in Daesoon Thought ultimately manifests as Seongsa-jaein.

A fight among humans causes a fight among the Seonryeongsin (ancestral spirits) in the heavens; only after the heavenly fight ends is the human fight decided.110)

In the excerpt above, the expression "only after the heavenly fight ends is the human fight decided" signifies Seongsa-jaecheon (Accomplishment of affairs lies with Heaven) of the Former World. In Donghak Thought, which lacks the concept of Sinmyeong, the outcome of a fight is determined by Gi (energy/spirit), whereas in Daesoon Thought, it is the Sinmyeong who determine the fight. In Daesoon Thought, this principle—that divine beings determine human fights—is reversed after Sangje's incarnation, changing the positions of human beings and divine beings.

In the Former World, it was said, "Planning of affairs lies with human beings (Mosa-jaein), and accomplishment of affairs lies with Heaven (Seongsa-jaecheon)," but now, planning of affairs lies with Heaven (Mosa-jaecheon), and accomplishment of affairs lies with human beings (Seongsa-jaein). Furthermore, no matter how much you wish to die, you will not be able to; you can only die when I release you.111)

In the excerpt above, the expression "now, planning of affairs lies with Heaven (Mosa-jaecheon), and accomplishment of affairs lies with human beings (Seongsa-jaein)" signifies that after the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje), the locus of decision-making power shifted from divine beings to human beings. The reversal of the positions of planning affairs (Mosa) and accomplishing affairs (Seongsa) after the incarnation is because the ultimate value of human beings was finally revealed through the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje). This is because the value of human beings as beings who possess both Yin and Yang—body and spirit—was revealed by the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje). If, before the incarnation, the affairs of the world were accomplished by the divine beings of Heaven and Earth (Cheonji-sinmyeong), the meaning of Seongsa-jaein is that after the incarnation, they are accomplished by human beings.

When Park Gong-u came to Guritgol after arguing with his wife, Sangje suddenly rebuked him, saying, "If I am venomous, I possess all the venom in the world, and if I am good, I possess all the goodness in the world. How can you commit such an unfaithful act while in my presence? Now, the divine beings of Heaven and Earth (Cheonji-sinmyeong) will search for their destined places (Unsu), visiting each person and each household to test their capacity (Giguk). If one's disposition is not generous and harmony is lost in the family, the divine beings will mock them, deeming their capacity unfit for great tasks, and will lead each other away; therefore, how can those who aspire to this work dare to be negligent in their thoughts even for a moment?" He said.112)

In the passage above, the expression 'the divine beings of Heaven and Earth seek out the seat of destiny (unsu)' means that, after the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon, the human being was changed into the seat of destiny that brings affairs to success (seongsa). That the positions of human and divine beings are reversed by the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon is because the divine beings fell into adversity (bigeop 否劫) and humankind fell into calamity (jaegeop 災劫). Comparing the views of humanity in Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, Daesoon Thought, through the expansion of correlative thinking, reinforces fractal thinking more than Donghak Thought does. In Daesoon Thought, the human plays the role of yang and the divine beings the role of yin; the harmonious union between divine and human beings (sinin-johwa) is likewise achieved by the principle of the virtuous concordance of yin and yang (eumyang-hapdeok). 113)

Seongsa (accomplishment of affairs) and Mosa (planning of affairs) can be understood through the Yin-Yang and Five Elements as Jori (Regulating Principle) and Gihwa (Materialization/Spiritualization). The relationship between Jori and Gihwa in the Later World is the reverse of that in the Former World. In Donghak Thought, the existence of Earth (To), which regulates Wood, Fire, Metal, and Water, becomes the divine being (Sinmyeong).

In the relationship of Seongsa-jaein, Jori and Gihwa manifest as human regulation (Jori) and divine materialization/spiritualization (Gihwa). This is similar to the relationship between Earth (To) and Wood, Fire, Metal, and Water in the Five Elements. Particularly in Daesoon Thought, human regulation (Jori) and divine materialization/spiritualization (Gihwa) represent a circulation as a principle of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements centered on human beings.

Human regulation (Jori) like Earth (To) and the divine materialization/spiritualization (Gihwa) of Wood, Fire, Metal, and Water have existed in both Eastern and Western traditions. In traditional Eastern thought, existences representing the four cardinal directions, like Wood, Fire, Metal, and Water, have been depicted as divine beings in the form of animals in the Sashindo (Painting of the Four Deities). In the West, too, divine beings have been represented as animals. The Four Elements (Earth, Water, Fire, Air), corresponding to the Western Sashindo, were regarded by Bachelard as the fundamental complex of human imagination.114)

Gilbert Durand, who succeeded Bachelard, states that the culmination of imagination is when human symbols meet by becoming divine, and human symbols become animals and eventually divine beings. Until now, humans have sought to become divine, but in Korea's culture of Simjeong (heart/mind), it is said that divine beings particularly seek to become human.115)

The I-Gi (Principle and Material Force) theory of the Seoncheon (Former) Yeok (Changes), which Confucius reportedly transmitted to Daoist hermits, differs from the Hucheon (Later) Yeok I-Gi theory of Neo-Confucianism in that Taegeuk (Supreme Ultimate) and Yin-Yang and the Five Elements possess the characteristics of both I and Gi, thus accommodating Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, and Western Learning (Seogyo). However, even Shao Kang-jie's I-Gi theory failed to adequately respond to Matteo Ricci's criticisms due to the distortion of the Seoncheon Yin-Yang itself and its lack of explanatory power regarding modern science, leading to the collapse of the Eastern divine-human relationship.116)

In Daesoon Thought, the liminal property of the view of the Human Realm is also strengthened. Human arrogance and materialism are reflected upon, and the primordial grievance of humanity is resolved (Haewon).117) Revitalization is expanded through the Dosu of the White-Clad General and the White-Clad Minister, symbolically giving away human flesh and going into exile on Maljeom Island.118)119)120)

In the Daesoon view of the Human Realm, the elevation of human status is expressed more clearly than in Donghak. Donghak Thought, which failed to introduce the Spirit Realm (Sinmyeong-gye), expresses the harmonious union between divine beings and human beings as 'Buryeon-giyeon' (Not so, yet so). 'Buryeon-giyeon' means that even the parts that are Buryeon (not so), which are difficult for humans to understand, will one day become Giyeon (so), understandable through spiritual cultivation (Sudo). In Daesoon Thought, many parts that were Buryeon (not so) in Donghak manifest as Giyeon (so). Human beings are divine beings trapped within a body, so by awakening the divine being within, they can communicate with the divine beings outside. The purpose of human birth is to change and develop into a new divine being (Sinmyeong) through the body. One must find the divine being within to find one's lost self and walk the path of a human being who brings success to Heaven and Earth. Therefore, in Daesoon Thought, Gaebyeok (the Great Opening) is the success of Heaven and Earth, which is the world of Dotong-jingyeong (Perfected State of Unification with the Dao) of Injon (Humanity as the center), possible only after the emergence of Dotong-gunja (Virtuous Scholars Who Have Attained the Dao).121)

In Daesoon Thought, Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings) becomes the principle of Gaebyeok (the Great Opening) by which Heaven and Earth succeed through human beings. Daesoon Thought explains the reason why Sin-in-johwa is possible through the principles of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, namely Geumhwa-gyoyeok (Mutual Exchange of Metal and Fire) and Togeuksu (Earth overcomes Water). As seen in the terms "divine beings fallen into Bigeop (calamity of obstruction)" and "human beings fallen into Jaegeop (calamity of disaster)," in Daesoon Thought, divine beings (corresponding to the Heavenly and Earthly Realms) and human beings possess two attributes—property and substance—that are difficult to reconcile.122) It manifests in the aspect of 'Sin-in-uido' (Mutual Guidance between Divine Beings and Human Beings). The divine beings of Heaven and Earth (Cheonji-sinmyeong), upon which Heaven and Earth are based, are also divine beings; therefore, like digital systems, they are devoted to truth but have only one direction, whereas human beings, though not precise, possess bodies that can flexibly adapt to change.123) Like Cheonwon-jibang (Heaven is Round, Earth is Square), properties move in both directions like a circle, while substance moves in one direction like a square; therefore, combining these two attributes results in Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings), resolving the problem. Kim Ji-ha expressed the principle of integrating the two opposing elements of substance and property as the "Aesthetics of White Shadow," which Kim Ik-du interpreted as liminality.124) The indigenous modernity of Daesoon Thought emphasizes the liminality and revitalization of correlative thinking.

In Donghak Thought, the Daoist development of the Heaven-human relationship was not revitalized, but in Daesoon Thought, it is specifically revitalized. Daesoon Thought is the only religious organization that venerates Jeungsan (Kang Il-sun) which honors the highest divine status (Singyeokwi) as Guchwon-eungwon-noeseong-bohwa-cheonjon-gangseong-sangje (Goo-cheon-eung-won-noe-seong-bo-hwa-cheon-jon-kang-seong-sang-je).

Comparison of the Heaven-Earth Relationships in Donghak and Daesoon Thought

Cheonji Gwisin (天地鬼神) and Cheonji Seongyeongsin (天地誠敬信)

'Heaven-Earth ghosts-and-spirits (cheonji-gwisin)' and 'Heaven-Earth sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness (cheonji-seonggyeongsin)' are terms that first appear, respectively, in Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, and that represent the Heaven-Earth relationship of the two thoughts. They are also two concepts that clearly show the difference between Donghak Thought, which emphasizes the emergence of the heaven-beyond-heaven, and Daesoon Thought, which emphasizes the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon. First, in the case of 'Heaven-Earth ghosts-and-spirits' in Donghak Thought—meaning that Heaven and Earth are beings made by the yin-yang principle of the transcendent Heaven—'ghosts-and-spirits' signifies the heaven-beyond-heaven of Donghak Thought and does not signify divine beings (sinmyeong). On the other hand, the 'Heaven-Earth sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness' of Daesoon Thought—by which Heaven and Earth operate and foster all things and even humanity's blessings and lifespan are determined—emphasizes the sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness of the divine beings.

Since both Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought emphasize the heaven above heaven—that is, the transcendent Heaven—here 'Heaven and Earth (cheonji)' differs from the concept of Heaven and Earth as yin-yang in traditional Eastern thought. If Heaven is regarded as the transcendent Heaven, the Earth that stands opposite to it corresponds to both Heaven and Earth. Both 'Heaven-Earth ghosts-and-spirits (天地鬼神)' and 'Heaven-Earth sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness (天地誠敬信)' signify the transcendent God and the attitude of the divine beings of Heaven and Earth toward the transcendent God.

Examined in detail, first, in Daesoon Thought the Three Realms coexist with the divine beings and operate by the sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness of the divine beings.

天地誠敬信125)

Life, longevity, and fortune are the grace of Heaven and Earth; therefore, establish the great righteousness of Cheonji-boeun (Grateful Reciprocation to Heaven and Earth) with Seong (Sincerity), Gyeong (Reverence), and Shin (Faith), and fulfill the human way (Indo).126)

The two passages above mean that a human being's life, lifespan, and blessings are favors bestowed by the sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness (seonggyeongsin) of the many divine beings who operate Heaven and Earth; therefore, a human being too, by emulating Heaven and Earth and reciprocating with sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness, can qualify as a person worthy of receiving Heaven and Earth's favors. This is the background by which the Three Essential Attitudes among the creeds of Daesoon Jinrihoe become sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness. 127)

Compared with Donghak Thought, which emphasizes the significance of the first emergence of the transcendent God, Daesoon Thought, which emphasizes the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon, emphasizes a different aspect of Heaven and Earth. First, Donghak Thought's 'Heaven-Earth ghosts-and-spirits' has the meaning of emphasizing the qi-transformation function (gihwa-jagyong) of the utmost qi (jigi) of the transcendent Heaven. Even before Donghak Thought arose, Neo-Confucianism too had expressed Heaven and Earth as ghosts-and-spirits, but the Heaven and Earth as ghosts-and-spirits in Neo-Confucianism was a substantialist explanation of yin-yang's operation. Donghak Thought, however, goes beyond Neo-Confucianism and emphasizes the transcendent Heaven. By emphasizing that Heaven and Earth being ghosts-and-spirits is not the operation of yin-yang but the qi-transformation function of the transcendent Heaven, it prepared a new modern turning point for Neo-Confucianism. 128)

Heaven and Earth too are ghosts-and-spirits (天地亦是 鬼神), and ghosts-and-spirits too are yin-yang (鬼神亦是 陰陽)—

Not having known it thus, what use is it to examine the classics?

Not having known the Dao and virtue, how could the worthies and noble gentlemen (賢人君子) know? 129)

In the passage above, 'ghosts-and-spirits' and 'Dao and virtue' carry the meaning of the transcendent Heaven, while 'the classics' and 'the worthies and noble gentlemen (賢人君子)' refer to the Dao of the heaven-below-heaven that Donghak seeks to overcome. Donghak Thought pursued, through the transcendent Heaven, a modernity that surpasses Neo-Confucianism; but because it could not accept even the concept of divine beings, it failed to go beyond the Confucian canon.

Donghak Thought, which accepted the concept of ghosts-and-spirits only in the sense of the transcendent Heaven and could not accept the concept of divine beings who heed the command of the transcendent Heaven, fails—owing to the absence of the concept of divine beings—to reach a successful modernity. Accordingly, Daesoon Thought, accepting the concept of divine beings, expresses Heaven and Earth as sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness, over against Donghak Thought, which expressed Heaven and Earth as ghosts-and-spirits.

Sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness (seonggyeongsin) is a term that centrally expresses the relationship between the transcendent Heaven and the human being in Eastern thought, which is a correlative thinking composed of yin-yang and the Five Elements. Donghak Thought too expresses Donghak Thought itself as a 'thought of sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness.'

吾道博而約不用多言義

別無他道理誠敬信三字130)

Sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness expanded gradually from the thought of sincerity (誠) in the Doctrine of the Mean to respectfulness (敬) and faithfulness (信), appearing in Donghak Thought as a term naming sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness together. Naming sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness together in Donghak Thought is because, like essence-energy-spirit (jeong-gi-sin), it seeks to express simultaneously the respective Heaven-Earth-Humanity elements contained in sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness. In fact, sincerity (誠) is sometimes translated by today's Western researchers as 'creativity.' 131)

However, although the same term 'sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness' is used, the concept of 'sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness' is the part where Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought—and further, even Confucian thought—differ most greatly. That sincerity (誠) was emphasized from Confucian thought onward is because sincerity was the part where Heaven and the human being connect. Just as utmost sincerity brings one into accord with Heaven, sincerity (誠) was the principal channel between Heaven and the human being, the principal method of human thorough penetration (hwaryeon-gwantong); hence sincerity (誠) was most valued in Confucian thought. Even early Western-Learning thinkers such as Yi Byeok, who encountered Western Learning through Confucianism, regarded sincerity (誠) as the link connecting Confucianism and the Western teaching. Donghak Thought emphasizes sincerity (誠) in the aspect of revitalizing the vanished Confucian tradition, but what differs from Confucianism is that it is sincerity toward not the Heaven of 'Heaven and Earth,' but the transcendent Heaven that made Heaven and Earth. Daesoon Thought, by contrast, goes further, so that this sincerity (誠) applies also to the Heaven and Earth created by Gucheon; the difference is that the concept of sincerity (誠) in Daesoon Thought appears within a triangular structure of Gucheon, divine beings, and human beings. In Daesoon Thought, a human being's reciprocation through sincerity (誠) applies to both Gucheon and Heaven-and-Earth.

Again, the concept of ghosts-and-spirits is also the part where Daesoon Thought and Donghak Thought—and further, Confucian learning—differ most greatly. As the expression 'Heaven-Earth sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness' shows, in Daesoon Thought the concept of ghosts-and-spirits, or divine beings, has sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness connected to the concept of divine beings, whereas in Donghak Thought or Confucian thought sincerity-respectfulness-faithfulness is not so connected. In Daesoon Thought, the role of the divine beings of Heaven and Earth, which was not specified in Confucian thought or Donghak Thought, is emphasized. Examined in more detail, this is as follows.

The concept of ghosts-and-spirits explained, from the standpoint of natural philosophy, as dispersing qi could not guarantee the eternity of the ghosts-and-spirits that are the objects of ancestral sacrifice; and the religious concept of ghosts-and-spirits, which reinforced eternity in order to support the significance of sacrifice, was not a theory that conformed without strain to the Neo-Confucian doctrine premised on the finitude of qi.

The ghosts-and-spirits interpreted from the natural-philosophical standpoint of Neo-Confucianism are, as the union of li and qi, beings that move back and forth between substance and phenomenon, being and non-being. Applying such a concept of ghosts-and-spirits to human affairs, it points to a being in the process leading from primordial non-being to birth, and from death back again to primordial non-being. In Li-Qi theory, ghosts-and-spirits are not an incomprehensible supernatural substance but the very intermediate process by which the various things and phenomena in nature come into being and perish—a concept grasping nature, composed of li (理) and qi (氣), from the aspect of its changing operation. As [the scholar] said, 'What manifests outwardly is qi (氣), and what is subtly immanent is li (理); taking these together, we call them ghosts-and-spirits.' 132)

Ghosts-and-spirits, although not at the dimension of fundamental beings like li or qi, were understood as that which, with li and qi bound together, really exists within nature and exercises a presiding power (jujaeryeok) that gives rise to change of itself. If ghosts-and-spirits are understood as qi (氣) alone, they will be perceived as thoroughly material; conversely, if regarded as li (理) alone, they will remain principle-like, abstract beings. Therefore, for ghosts-and-spirits to be a numinous being possessing presiding power of itself, they must have both elements, li and qi. However, in explaining ghosts-and-spirits, the questions of which of the two to weight more heavily, and of whether li and qi being together is coexistence (竝存) or union (合一), became continuing topics of discussion among later Neo-Confucians.

In Neo-Confucianism, the human body too, like other things, is thought to be composed of qi (氣). The birth of a human being is accomplished when, within the mother's womb, the qi of the father and mother and the qi drifting around at that moment combine to form a single independent living being. Human death is that process running in reverse. When the life of a human being who had existed as an independent individual comes to an end, the qi that composed the body disperses into nature and disappears. Yet at this time, the dispersal of qi does not occur immediately at the moment of death but proceeds gradually over a long time. The logic that the various ancestral sacrifices, which the royal house and the scholar-official families of the Joseon period performed unceasingly with all their devotion, are directed not at a fiction or a notion but at a really existing being, is explained precisely on this ground. The ghost of the dead person who is the object of sacrifice—namely, the human-ghost (人鬼)—though a finite thing in the process of extinction, can, until it reaches complete extinction, partake of the sacrifice as a really existing being.

In light of the premise of Neo-Confucianism's Li-Qi dualism, which distinguishes the roles of li and qi, granting the capacity for action (作爲) to qi alone and allowing li only a principle-like character, some Neo-Confucians say that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is an untenable theory. However, the point we must grasp meaningfully is that the substance called li (理), as conceived by the Neo-Confucians of the Joseon period, was not confined to a natural and ethical principle 'without feeling or intention (無情意)' and 'without contrivance (無造作),' but was sometimes also perceived as a numinous and luminous (靈明) being that guarantees the eternity of human existence. 133)

The conspicuous difference in the Heaven-Earth and Earth-human relationships of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought lies in the difference of their perception of the West. If Donghak, which first advocated autogenous modernity, emphasizes—as seen in the very name 'Donghak'—a stance of opposition to Western Learning (Seohak), Daesoon Thought emphasizes—as seen in the term 'Daesoon'—the point of embracing. Accordingly, with respect to autogenous modernity, Daesoon Thought presents the Eastern origin of Western modernity. To survey, in brief, the studies up to recently on the formation of Donghak Thought as related to autogenous modernity: Donghak Thought begins from the Eastern origin of Western modernity, is then re-imported into the East together with Western Learning, and again, modern Chinese Daoism such as the autogenously developed Nandan Daoism is synthesized with the existing Neo-Confucianism, taking form as a revelation of Sangje in the shape of the 'Dialogue with the Heavenly Teacher (Cheonsa-mundap 天師問答).' 134)

Dogi Jangjon (道氣長存) and Sangsaeng (相生)

The concept of 'mutual beneficence (sangsaeng)' is the term in which the most representative difference appears between the conceptions of Earth in Daesoon Thought and Donghak Thought. That the concept of mutual beneficence is used in connection with an abstract concept, as in 'resolution of grievances for mutual beneficence (haewon-sangsaeng),' first appears in Daesoon Thought among the Jeungsan-related thoughts. That sangsaeng, used in yin-yang and the Five Elements, can be used together with an abstract concept in Daesoon Thought has, as its background, the relationship of Gucheon and the divine beings—namely, To's mediation of Wood-Fire-Metal-Water, as seen in harmonizing (jori) and qi-transformation (gihwa).

Although the concept of yin-yang and the Five Elements appears in Donghak Thought as well and functioned as the standard of science in the East for some 2,000 years after Dong Zhongshu, the core concept of yin-yang and the Five Elements being used together with 'resolution of grievances for mutual beneficence' is a theoretical derivation of yin-yang and the Five Elements viewed from the standpoint of Gucheon, like the Three Realms and the Three Powers, or the Former World and the Later World. In Daesoon Thought, yin-yang and the Five Elements—as appears in the 'Prospectus of Mugeuk-do' in the form of the virtuous concordance of yin and yang, the establishment of the Three Powers, and the completeness of the Five Elements—are, together with yin-yang and the Three Powers, the principle by which Gucheon operates the Three Realms.

In Daesoon Thought, according to the arrangement methods of yin-yang and the Five Elements known as the Hetu (Hado) and Luoshu (Nakseo), Gucheon operates yin-yang and the Five Elements, and accordingly the non-doing and self-transformation (muwi-ihwa) of birth-growth-harvest-storage (saengjang-yeomjang) occurs. The divine beings are infinitely superposed according to the intention of Gucheon and fulfill the role of the divine beings of Heaven and Earth—such is the worldview, by the autogenous modernity of Daesoon Thought, presented by Gucheon.

Here, mutual contention (sanggeuk) and mutual beneficence (sangsaeng) are elevated beyond the operating principle of yin-yang and the Five Elements to the core principle of all the myriad things. The traditional mutual contention and mutual beneficence are applied, by autogenous modernity, to everyday things, becoming the criterion for evaluating and judging everyday things. 135)

Yin-yang and the Five Elements appear in Donghak Thought too, but mutual contention and mutual beneficence are not emphasized. Mutual contention and mutual beneficence have their importance emphasized in the course of Gucheon's harmonizing of yin-yang and the Five Elements through the Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth after the human incarnation and descent. Yin-yang and the Five Elements appear not only as the Limitless (Mugeuk) emphasized in Donghak Thought, but also as the importance of the Supreme Ultimate (Taegeuk). 136)

The Supreme Ultimate unfolds from yin-yang into the Three Powers and the Five Elements, ultimately becoming yin-yang and the Five Elements; and what does not change within yin-yang and the Five Elements is the central 'To' (土, Earth) at the center. The yin-yang and the Five Elements that Dong Zhongshu combined were fully combined only through the Hetu and Luoshu, which Shao Yong rediscovered. Shao Yong, disclosing the Hetu, Luoshu, and the diagram of the Eight Trigrams of Fu Xi, which Confucius is legendarily said to have transmitted to the Daoist thinkers, unified yin-yang and the Five Elements with the Eight Trigrams. According to Shao Yong's interpretation of yin-yang and the Five Elements unified by the Hetu and Luoshu, the cosmos is the infinite repetition of yin-yang and the Five Elements, and yin-yang and the Five Elements are the movement in which Wood-Fire-Metal-Water move in mutual contention and mutual beneficence around the central 'To' (土). If yin-yang and the Five Elements signify endless change, then, like the Supreme Ultimate, there is an unchanging being that makes yin-yang and the Five Elements change endlessly, and this is precisely li (理); corresponding to the qi (氣) of yin-yang and the Five Elements, it comes to possess the attribute of origination-flourishing-benefiting-firmness (wonhyeong-ijeong). In the end, in Shao Yong's system, li (理) is the invisible central 'To' (土) among the Five Elements and is origination-flourishing-benefiting-firmness, while qi (氣) is the Wood-Fire-Metal-Water that manifests around the periphery among the Five Elements and is yin-yang and the Five Elements. 137)138)139)

In yin-yang and the Five Elements, mutual contention is, together with mutual beneficence, absolutely necessary. However, since balance between mutual contention and mutual beneficence is important, leaning toward mutual contention also risks maximizing mutual contention. The autogenous modernity of Donghak Thought pursues the power of mutual contention, as in its emphasis on the long preservation of the Dao's energy (do-gi-jangjon 道氣長存), qi-transformation (gihwa 氣化), and the repulsion of Japan (cheok-wae).

In Donghak Thought, the word 'do-gi-jangjon (道氣長存)' is a phrase appearing in 'Ipchunsi (Verse on the Beginning of Spring),' which Suun wrote at the beginning of spring of the Gyeongsin Year, just before the Dialogue with the Heavenly Teacher, resolving to devote himself to cultivation.

道氣長存邪不入, 世間衆人不同歸140)

The text above can be thought of simply as a firm resolve regarding cultivation, but The Canonical Scripture (Jeongyeong) reveals that an important meaning is hidden in it from the standpoint of mutual contention and mutual beneficence.

In The Songs of Suwun, there is a saying, “If the energy of the Dao is maintained for a long time, wickedness cannot enter [道氣長存邪不入].” However, I say, “If a perfected heart is adamantly guarded, blessings will come first [眞心堅守福先來].” 141)

In the passage above, Suun's 'do-gi-jangjon (道氣長存)' is contrasted with 'jinsim-gyeonsu (眞心堅守, adamantly guarding a perfected heart).' In the passage above, 'do-gi-jangjon' contrasted with 'jinsim-gyeonsu' emphasizes the meaning of countering force with force. Regarding countering force with force, The Canonical Scripture states the following.

Repaying evil with evil is the same as washing away blood with blood. 142)

To say 'do not repay evil with evil' does not mean that The Canonical Scripture tells one to grant an opponent's unjust demands. Rather, The Canonical Scripture criticizes as weakness the inability to refuse an unjust demand. It only emphasizes that, in solving a problem, mutual contention must be resolved through mutual beneficence.

In the autogenous modernity of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, the part where mutual contention and mutual beneficence appear most conspicuously is the part related to the West and Japan. First, looking at the case of the West:

東有大聖人曰東學 西有大聖人曰西學143)

In the passage above, Daesoon Thought regards Western Learning as being of the same rank of sages as Donghak. Unlike Donghak Thought, which displayed great wariness toward the West, Daesoon Thought regards East and West as a mutually beneficial relationship of the virtuous concordance of yin and yang. Matteo Ricci, for instance, also appears as a figure who broke through the boundary of East and West and transmitted the civilization of Heaven to Earth. In fact, even in the Practical Learning (Silhak) of the late Joseon period, there was an ambivalent attitude toward Western Learning.

The Christian thought that exerted influence among the scholars of the Seongho school, a representative school of late-Joseon Practical Learning, appears to have provoked broadly three types of response. The first, as in the case of An Jeong-bok, was to acknowledge that there was something to learn from Western Learning as science while clearly rejecting Christian thought as religion or philosophy. The second, conversely, was to accept Christian thought as religion and even to advance to the stage of believing in it; among Seongho's disciples, this corresponds to the so-called Faith-in-the-West faction (Sinseopa)—Yi Byeok (1754-1786), Gwon Cheol-sin (1736-1801), Yi Seung-hun (1756-1801), Yi Ga-hwan (1742-1801), and others. The third was the effort to take the stimulus of Christian thought as an occasion for returning to the original standpoint of ancient Confucianism, and thereby to establish a new theoretical system regarding the problems of nature and the human being. The philosophy of Jeong Yak-yong (1762-1836), counted among the representative figures of late-Joseon Practical Learning, corresponds to this third case. Jeong Yak-yong, a representative scholar of the time, is said to have acknowledged Sangje and Li-Qi theory while denying the yin-yang and the Five Elements that form the theoretical basis of the divine beings of Heaven and Earth. 144)145)

Next, looking at the case of Japan: the first Reordering Work of Heaven and Earth to be realized after Jeungsan's passing into Heaven was the 'Resolution of Japan's Grievances (Ilbon-haewon).' Compared with Donghak Thought's 'dog-like Japanese enemies,' Daesoon Thought says that, since the Japanese too are people, one should at least treat them generously in speech. 146)147)

One day, Sangje said, “If I took Joseon (Korea) over to the West, it could not survive, being abused due to racial discrimination. And if I took Joseon over to Qing, its people, who are dull and stupid, could not afford to take the responsibility. There have been grievances between the gods of both nations who have presided over arts of the Dao since the Imjin War (1592-1598), so I will hand Joseon over to Japan in order to resolve the grievances there. I shall temporarily give them the power of unifying the world and the greatly bright energy of the sun and moon to do the work. But I shall never grant them one thing: benevolence. If they were endowed with benevolence, the entire world would be under their control. I will confer the word of benevolence to you. Keep it well. You shall live in relative safety while only they work. Accordingly, do everything accurately for them to handle. When they finish the work, they will return to their country empty-handed without wages. At the very least, use refined language with them.”

The Canonical Scripture (Jeongyeong), rather than mutual contention with Japan, presents as an interpretation of history by autogenous modernity the mutually beneficial path by which, after the resolution of Japan's grievances—connected even to the fall of Baekje and thereafter to the Imjin War—Joseon can receive China's reciprocation and become a nation of superior rank.

Comparison of the Heaven-Human and Earth-Human Relationships in Donghak and Daesoon Thought

The Heaven-Human Relationship of Human Way (人道) and Divine Way (神道)

Daesoon Thought, with the terms 'Heavenly mandate (cheonmyeong 天命)' and 'divine teaching (singyo 神敎),' distinguishes the human Way (indo 人道) carried out by humans and the Way of gods (sindo 神道) carried out by divine beings.

When Sangje resided in Gucheon (the Ninth Heaven), the Sinseong (Divine Sages), Buddhas, and Bodhisattvas appealed that without Sangje, the chaotic Heaven and Earth could not be rectified; therefore, He descended to the Cheongyetap (Heavenly Revelation Pagoda) in the Great French Nation of the West, looked over the Three Realms, made a great tour (Daesoon) of the world, and then stopped in the Eastern Land, residing in the Golden Maitreya Statue at Geumsan Temple on Moak Mountain for thirty years, during which He bestowed the Heavenly Mandate (Cheonmyeong) and Divine Teaching (Singyo) upon Choe Su-un to establish the Great Dao; however, in the Gapja year (1864), He withdrew the Heavenly Mandate and Divine Teaching, and in the Sinmi year (1871), He decided to descend into the world Himself.148)

The core difference between the Way of gods and the human Way is that, since divine beings are constituent elements of Heaven and Earth, the Way of gods entails structural change. Accordingly, the Way of gods, which proceeds in parallel with the Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth, appears in the form of a re-establishment of the Heaven-human relationship. 149)

“If all things, no matter how large or small, are ruled by the Dao of gods, profound and inscrutable accomplishments shall be gained. This is the way of changing without need for action. With the Dao of gods, all things can be performed in accordance with the righteousness of the Dao. By doing so, I will determine the destiny of the boundless paradisiacal land of immortals. A new foundation shall be opened when the Degree Number reaches the right time.”

“If someone had to undertake the mission of defending against the Japanese army in the Imjin War (1592-1598), Choi Pung-Heon would have brought it to a close within three days. Jin-Muk would have taken no longer than three months. Song Gubong could have done it within eight months. This is only due to the fact that Daoism, Buddhism, and Confucianism have different arts of the Dao. In the past, the ground was small and affairs were simple, so it was possible to clear confusion away with just one method. However, today, as the improved contact between the East and the West has broadened the ground and complicated the affairs, it is not possible to redress chaos unless all methods are integrated and used.” 150)

In the passage above, the expression 'a new foundation shall be opened as the destiny (unsu) reaches the right time' indicates that, since divine beings are constituent elements of Heaven and Earth, the Way of gods entails structural change. In the end, Daesoon Thought laments that Donghak Thought, failing to understand sufficiently the Way of gods of 'Heavenly mandate' and 'divine teaching,' scarcely mentioned divine beings and could not greatly depart from the human Way. Traditionally, the human Way carries the meaning of an artificial Way, while the Way of gods carries the meaning of the necessary Way of nature, like natural law. Daesoon Thought too follows the traditional distinction between the human Way and the Way of gods. 151)

In Donghak Thought, the emergence of the heaven-beyond-heaven was epoch-making, but because it could not explain the existence and role of divine beings, the relationship between the heaven-beyond-heaven and the human being could not escape the scope of the Confucian human Way. Donghak Thought chose the path of the human Way (人道), communicating with the heaven-beyond-heaven by doing the best a human being can do.

One day, Sangje´s disciples wrote down their names while thinking about the all-time greatest generals in accordance with His orders. Gyeong-Seok asked Sangje, “Is the founder of a dynasty one of the greatest generals as well?” Sangje said, “Yes, he is.” Gyeong-Seok enumerated the generals from the Yellow Emperor, King Tang, King Wu of Zhou, Jiang Taigong and Emperor Gaozu of Han, to others, ending with Jeon Myeong-Suk (Jeon Bong-Jun). Then he gave the paper to Sangje. Sangje asked him, “Why did you put Jeon Myeong-Suk at the end?” Gyeong-Seok replied, “Jeon Myeong-Suk is the first if read from the left.” Sangje agreed with him and said to His disciples, “Jeon Myeong-Suk is one of the greatest generals of all ages. He was a poor scholar without a government position, yet he moved the world.” 152)

In the passage above, the Donghak Peasant Movement sought to favor the lowborn and make them yangban, and it became the fuse for a series of events extending from the Sino-Japanese War to the Russo-Japanese War and the First and Second World Wars. Donghak Thought is evaluated, not only at the time but also today, as the truly original modern ideological movement, predating even the French Revolution, so that a World Revolutionary Cities Solidarity Conference is held annually in Jeongeup. In Daesoon Thought, however, in the Heaven-human relationship, the Way of gods (神道) that communicates together with the divine beings of Heaven and Earth is emphasized more than the human Way (人道) of Donghak Thought, which seeks to communicate directly with the heaven-beyond-heaven.

水生於火 火生於水 金生於木 木生於金 其用可知然後 方可謂神人也

陰殺陽生 陽殺陰生 生殺之道 在於陰陽 人可用陰陽然後 方可謂人生也

人爲陽 神爲陰 陰陽相合然後 有變化之道也

不測變化之術 都在於神明 感通神明然後 事其事則謂之大仁大義也153)

In the passage above, the human is yang and the divine beings are yin (人爲陽 神爲陰); and since one can be called a human only when one knows how to use yin and yang (人可用陰陽然後 方可謂人生也), a human being acquires the minimum condition of being a human who knows how to use yin and yang only by knowing how to work together with the divine beings (感通神明然後 事其事). 154)

Sangje said, "In the Seoncheon (Former World), all human affairs and things were governed by Sangguk (mutual conflict/overcoming), causing grievances to accumulate and form knots, filling the Three Realms; thus, Heaven and Earth lost their constant way (Sangdo), giving rise to all sorts of disasters, and the world became tragic." "Therefore, I intend to rectify the Dosu of Heaven and Earth, harmonize the divine beings (Sinmyeong), resolve the grievances of all time, and establish the Seon'gyeong (Immortal Realm) of the Hucheon (Later World) through the Dao of Sangsaeng (mutual beneficence), thereby saving the people of the world." "In all matters, great or small, the grievances must be resolved starting from the Sindo (Dao of Gods/Divine Beings)." "First, if the Dosu is firmly established and harmonized, that will become the foundation, and human affairs (Insa) will be accomplished spontaneously." "This is precisely the Samgye-gongsa (Work of the Three Realms)," He said to Kim Hyeong-ryeol, and He began a part of it, the Myeongbu-gongsa (Work of the Realm of Judgment).155)

In the passage above, the content 'one must, without distinction of great or small affairs, resolve grievances starting from the Way of gods' reveals that Donghak Thought and Western modernity, failing to understand the parts of divine beings and grievances, could not show successful results in matters great and small.

In Daesoon Thought, the characteristic of Confucianism is regarded as a human-centered doctrinal system that does not emphasize divine beings—called 'maintaining decorum (yuji-beomjeol).' Indeed, Confucianism has traditionally held to the tradition of 'revering yet keeping at a distance (敬而遠之)'—acknowledging divine beings (敬) but not drawing close to them (遠之). 156)

That the re-establishment of the view of the Three Realms connects with the Heaven-human relationship is through the re-establishment of the divine-human relationship known as harmonizing (jori) and qi-transformation (gihwa). After the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon, harmonizing and qi-transformation can now turn mutual contention into mutual beneficence, making possible, through the human being, the creative transformation (johwa) of the divine beings and the resolution of grievances (haewon) of humans.

The difference between Donghak Thought, which emphasizes the emergence of the heaven-beyond-heaven, and Daesoon Thought, which emphasizes the human incarnation and descent of Gucheon, is that humanity's mediation of contradiction through empathy—that is, the human use of yin and yang—is achieved through humanity's harmonizing (jori) and the divine beings' qi-transformation (gihwa). Shao Yong, like The Canonical Scripture (Jeongyeong), shows that the human being can harmonize the divine beings through the empathy and righteousness of the mind.

The Earth-Human Relationship of Simgeub Doyu (心急道儒) and Dotong Gunja (道通君子)

The most prominent difference in the view of the Earthly Realm (Jigyegwan) between Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought is that Daesoon Thought's Gaebyeok (Great Opening) specifies the Dotong (Unification with the Dao) of the twelve thousand Dotong-gunja (Virtuous Scholars Who Have Attained the Dao) through Geumgangsan (Diamond Mountain) and the subsequent Dotong-jingyeong (Perfected State of Unification with the Dao). In Donghak Thought, which does not involve Sinmyeong (divine beings), the realization of the Dao manifested as social practice. In the society of that time, the realization of the Dao was the worldly desire that even commoners could become kings, nobles, generals, and ministers (Wanghu-jangsang). For those practicing Donghak Thought, the meaning of the emergence of the Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) culminated in Simgeupdoyu (Daoist-Confucians with an impatient mind).157)

Simgeupdoyu refers to the subject of Su-un's admonition to Donghak followers, which appears in "Tan Doyusimgeup" (Lamenting the Impatient Mind of Daoist-Confucians) in the Donggyeong Daejeon, presumed to be a late work.158) Su-un referred to Donghak followers as Doyu (Daoist-Confucians), and through this poem, he warned the Donghak followers who wished for the results of their spiritual cultivation to appear quickly, calling them Simgeupdoyu.159)

山河大運 盡歸此道 其源極深 其理甚遠 — The great destiny of the mountains and rivers all returns to this Dao; its source is exceedingly deep, its principle exceedingly far-reaching.

固我心柱 乃知道味 一念在玆 萬事如意 — Firmly holding the pillar of my mind, I come to know the savor of the Dao; when a single thought rests here, all affairs go as one wishes.

消除濁氣 兒養淑氣 — Dispel and remove the turbid energy, and nurture the pure energy as one rears a child.

非徒心至 惟在正心 隱隱聰明 仙出自然 — It is not merely that the mind arrives; it lies only in rectifying the mind. Quietly and subtly comes clear intelligence, and the immortal emerges of its own accord.

來頭百事 同歸一理 — The hundred affairs to come all return to a single principle.

他人細過 勿論我心 我心小慧 以施於人 — Do not let another's small faults trouble my mind; the small wisdom of my mind, bestow it upon others.

如斯大道 勿誠小事 臨勳盡料 自然有助 — For so great a Dao as this, do not lavish sincerity on trifling matters; when facing a task, give it your full reckoning, and help will come of itself.

風雲大手 隨其器局 玄機不露 勿爲心急 — The great hand of wind and cloud accords with one's capacity and measure; the profound mechanism is not disclosed, so let not the mind be hasty.

功成他日 好作仙緣 心兮本虛 應物無迹 — When merit is accomplished on a later day, make good the affinity for immortality; the mind is by nature empty, responding to things without leaving a trace.

心修來而知德 德惟明而是道 — When the mind is cultivated, one comes to know virtue; when virtue is bright, this is the Dao.

在德不在於人 在信不在於工 — It lies in virtue, not in other people; it lies in faith, not in labor.

在近不在於遠 在誠不在於求 — It lies in the near, not in the far; it lies in sincerity, not in seeking.

不然而其然 似遠而非遠 — Not so, and yet it is so; seemingly far, and yet not far.

On the other hand, Daesoon Thought, which introduced Sinmyeong (divine beings) through the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje), aimed to realize the Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals) and Jiseon-cheonguk (Earthly Paradise) in this world, but unlike Donghak Thought, it did not desire to become kings, nobles, generals, and ministers (Wanghu-jangsang) through undue haste (Yoksok-budal).160) Daesoon Thought remained faithful to daily life with a long-term perspective looking far into the Hucheon (Later World). Daesoon Thought, which considers the Hucheon (Later World), states that Cham Donghak (True Eastern Learning) is that which specifies the emergence of Geumgangsan (Diamond Mountain) and the Dotong-gunja (Virtuous Scholars Who Have Attained the Dao) after the Gaebyeok (Great Opening)—which do not appear in Donghak Thought—and aims to produce these Dotong-gunja.161) Since the Daesoon view of the Three Realms aims for the production of Dotong-gunja as a priority, the Earth-human relationship (Ji-in-gwangye) also develops centered around the Dotong-gunja. In the Earth-human relationship of Donghak Thought, the Dotong-gunja and Geumgangsan are not specified, but they appear in the phrase "great men are the spiritual energy of the earth" (Ingeol-eun-jiryeong) and in references to Sinseon (Immortals).

Although Donghak Thought, which became a practical example of "making the whole country Yangban," maximized the intensity of practicing egalitarianism to the point of "making the whole country kings, nobles, generals, and ministers," the Jeon-gyeong interprets this as Su-un failing to overcome the limitations (Jeonheon) of Confucianism.162)

One day, Sangje said to Kim Hyeong-ryeol, "The Westerner Matteo Ricci (Yi Madu) came to the East and tried to establish an earthly paradise, but he could not achieve his goal because the deep-rooted evil customs of Confucianism made reform difficult. However, he opened the boundaries between the Celestial and Subterranean Realms, allowing the divine beings (Sinmyeong), who had firmly guarded their respective regions and could not cross over, to interact, and after his death, he took the civilization divine beings (Munmyeongsin) of the East to the West and opened the way for cultural development (Mun-un). From this, the Subterranean divine beings (Jihasin) emulated all the wondrous methods of the Celestial Realm and bestowed them upon the human world. All the cultures and materials of the West are modeled after the Kingdom of Heaven," He said, "That civilization, being biased toward materialism, has instead fostered human arrogance and, in its attempt to conquer nature and shake the Heavenly Principle, has continuously committed all sorts of sins, undermining the authority of the Sindo (Dao of Divine Beings). Consequently, the proper ways (Sangdo) of the Heavenly Dao and Human Affairs (Insa) were violated, the Three Realms fell into confusion, and the source of the Dao was severed. Therefore, all the primordial divine saints, Buddhas, and Bodhisattvas gathered and appealed to Gucheon (the Highest Heaven) regarding this calamity (Geobaek) of humanity and the Spirit Realm. Thus, I descended to the Celestial Revelation Pagoda (Cheongyetap) in the great Western nation of France, inspected (Daesun) the world, and then stopped in this Eastern land, arriving at the Maitreya Golden Buddha statute in the three-story hall of Geumsansa Temple on Moaksan Mountain. After staying for thirty years, I revealed the Daedo (Great Dao) for saving the world (Jesedaedo) to Choe Je-u. However, as Je-u was unable to overcome the limitations (Jeonheon) of Confucianism and reveal the true meaning of the Daedo, I finally withdrew the Heavenly Mandate (Cheonmyeong) and Divine Teaching (Singyo) in the Gapja (1864) year and descended in the Sinmi (1871) year."163)

In the excerpt above, the 'true meaning of the Daedo' is presented as an alternative modernity to Western modernity, which was biased toward materialism and fostered human arrogance; Daesoon Thought presents the purpose of Donghak Thought as an ideology that transcended Confucianism. Just as ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny, the 'true meaning of the Daedo' had to be a new truth that transcended Confucianism and gathered only the strengths of all principles. Therefore, the Cham Donghak (True Eastern Learning) that Donghak failed to realize was to transcend the modernity of 'making the whole country kings, nobles, generals, and ministers' and to realize 'Earthly Immortals' (Jiseon-sinseon).

One day, Sangje took Gyeong-seok from Nongam and, on the way to Jeongeup, stopped at a tavern in Wonpyeong, called over a passerby, bought him alcohol, and said, "This road is the sea route to Namjoseon (Southern Joseon). We must load much cargo before departing," and then hurried on the road, reaching a place thirty ri away, saying, "A great formation (Daejin) travels thirty ri in one party," and stayed at the house of Park Gong-woo, who lived in the jaesil (ritual house) of the Choe family in Songwol-ri, Gobu. He said to Gong-woo and Gyeong-seok, "Now that I have met the one I was meant to meet, the Tongjeongsin (Spirit of Mutual Understanding) emerges. My work is something that even my parents and siblings do not know." He continued, "I descended to the Cheongyetap (Tower of Divine Revelation) in the Great Western Nation of France, toured the world (Daesoon), and then, taking the authority of the Three Realms (Samgye), I came to open a paradise (Seongyeong) through the Gaebyeok of the Three Realms and save the people of the world who have fallen into annihilation; the reason I stopped in this land while touring your Eastern country is to first help the obscure, weak nation buried in calamity and resolve the grievances accumulated throughout the ages. Those who follow me will receive eternal fortune and blessings, achieve immortality, and enjoy the pleasures of an eternal paradise; this is the True Donghak. In the Gungeul-ga (Song of Gung-eul), it is said, 'The lands and rivers of Joseon are a famed land (Myeongsan). A Dotong Gunja (Gentleman who has attained the Dao) will be born again'; this also refers to my work. It is transmitted among Donghak followers that a Daeseonsaeng (Great Teacher) will be reborn (gaengsaeng); this means a Daeseonsaeng (Teacher of the Era) will emerge again, and I am that Daeseonsaeng."164)

In the excerpt above, the original purpose of Donghak is shown to go beyond advocating the Confucian 'anti-feudal, anti-foreign' stance, and to develop into an indigenous modernity leading to the Hucheon (Later World), a new world—that is, Cham Donghak (True Eastern Learning).

The Hucheon (Later World), the new world, is the world of Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals) and Dotong-gunja (Virtuous Scholars Who Have Attained the Dao), and the Jiseon-sinseon is another form of Eumyang-hapdeok (Virtuous Concordance of Yin and Yang) between Earth and humanity, which are in a Yin-Yang relationship. The slogan of Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals) is manifesting as reality today. If we introduce the correlative thinking of Yin-Yang and the Five Elements, which has hitherto been overlooked in studies on the indigenous modernity of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, the Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals) can be understood as the following Eumyang-hapdeok (Virtuous Concordance of Yin and Yang) relationship between Earth and humanity.

Since the concept of the Samjae (Three Powers: Heaven, Earth, and Humanity), human beings have been regarded as equal to Heaven and Earth, but there has been little explanation as to why human beings can be equal to Heaven and Earth. Daesoon Thought clearly refers to the human-centricity mediated by Heaven and Earth—that human beings are compatible with Heaven and Earth, and that human beings must exist for Heaven and Earth to succeed—as Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings). In Daesoon Thought, although human beings are incomparably small in scale and function compared to Heaven and Earth, they organically become beings equal to Heaven and Earth in that they are compatible with Heaven and Earth by combining the two aspects of Heaven and Earth as Yin and Yang. Before Daesoon Thought, human beings' status was only formally equalized with Heaven and Earth through the Samjae (Three Powers) and Samgye (Three Realms). Before the emergence of Daesoon Thought, human beings were indeed like specks of dust compared to Heaven and Earth. The characteristic of the Earth-human relationship (Ji-in-gwangye) in Daesoon Thought is that through human Dotong (Unification with the Dao), human beings can become beings who mediate and are compatible with Heaven and Earth.

Daesoon Thought has expressed the process leading from Donghak through the Donghak Peasant Revolution to Jeungsan Thought as a process of harmony (Johwa) consisting of Jakran (Creating Disorder), Dongran (Causing Turmoil), and Chiran (Remedying Disorder). If the correlative thinking of the concept of "harmony" (Johwa), which began in Donghak Thought, is interpreted as "liminality," the modernity manifested in Donghak and Daesoon Thought (as Cham Donghak) can be compared, focusing on the concept of the view of the Three Realms (Samgye-gwan), where correlative thinking is concentrated.165) Daesoon Thought, which proclaimed Cham Donghak (True Eastern Learning), actually materializes Yin-Yang and the Five Elements as its ideological indigenous nature, starting from the initial Mugeukdo prospectus—which outlined Eumyang-hapdeok (Virtuous Concordance of Yin and Yang), Samjae-hwakrip (Establishment of the Three Powers), and Ohaeng-gubi (Completion of the Five Elements)—more so than Donghak Thought.166)

Conclusion

Today, the Eastern Learning (Donghak) Peasant Movement is being re-evaluated as a modern movement comparable to the French Revolution, and Daesoon (Daesun) Thought is attracting attention as an ideology that can explain the changes in the post-modern world through the traditional Eastern system of thought. This dissertation centers on the concept of "Donghak" (Eastern Learning) as a method of thought in Eastern philosophy and aims to demonstrate that the two systems of thought (Donghak and Daesoon) both built East Asia's indigenous (jasaengjeok) modernity through the reconstruction of the trinitarian cosmology of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind.

The series of discussions revealed in this dissertation can be summarized as follows. The alternative to Western modernity, which is in crisis, can be found in the alternative modernity demonstrated by the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind in Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought. The reason for this is that the cause of the crisis in Western modernity lies in Western immanence, which views the change of all things only through substance, whereas the East possesses correlative thinking, which explains the change of all things through attributes. Western postmodern theories, after long discussions, have come to explain Eastern rationality through correlative thinking and liminality. Accordingly, the new alternative views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind established by Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought can be explained by the liminality of correlative (sanggwanjeok) thinking.

Liminality, meaning threshold or boundary, reveals the chaotic dynamic characteristics of Eastern thought that pursues the harmony of Yin and Yang by encompassing both mutually opposing elements to harmonize their opposition for the sake of passage through the boundary in rites of passage—that is, for change. On the other hand, correlative thinking reveals the fractal static characteristics that all things are interconnected. Through the liminality of correlative thinking, which synthesizes these two characteristics, the Heaven, Earth, and Humankind of the East and West are interconnected. Heaven and Earth become an existence like Gun-Sa-Bu (Monarch, Teacher, and Father) to human beings. Just as in human relationships, where subjects, disciples, and children are beings who receive and realize the will of the Gun-Sa-Bu, human beings receive grace from Heaven and Earth, repay that grace, and become beings of Yeocheonjidong (Sharing the Same [Virtues] with Heaven and Earth), learning abilities equivalent to Heaven and Earth.

In Donghak Thought, when the Cheonsa-mundap (Q&A with the Heavenly Teacher) took place, the purpose of the Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) was to revitalize the liminality of correlative thinking in the Three Realms of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind. Accordingly, Donghak Thought presents new views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind based on the emergence of the Cheon-oe-cheon. The views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind newly presented by Donghak Thought consist of the view of Heaven as Sicheonju (Bearing the Heavenly Lord), the view of Earth as Jowha-jeong (Fixing the Creation), and the view of Humankind as Yeongse-bulmang (Never forgetting for all ages). The Three Realms of Donghak Thought, in turn, interact based on a Gwisillon (theory of spirits) relationship between Heaven and Earth, through a Gihwaron (theory of materialization/spiritualization) Heaven-human relationship, and a Ji-in-gwangye (Earth-human relationship) of kings, nobles, generals, and ministers (Wanghu-jangsang). However, the Donghak view of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind failed to sufficiently overcome the limitations (Jeonheon) of Confucianism and was discontinued.

In response, Daesoon Thought introduces the concepts of Sinmyeong (divine beings) and Wonhan (grievances) based on the incarnation of Gucheon (Sangje), and overcomes the Confucian limitations present in the Donghak view of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind with a Sin-in-uido (principle of mutual guidance between divine beings and human beings) view of the Three Realms. Daesoon Thought presents the view of the Heavenly Realm based on incarnation (Insin-gangse), the view of the Earthly Realm based on Cheonji-seonggyeongsin (Sincerity, Reverence, and Faith of Heaven and Earth), and the view of the Human Realm based on Seongsa-jaein (Accomplishment of affairs lies with human beings). The Three Realms of Daesoon Thought interact based on the principle of Yeocheonjidong (Sharing the Same [Virtues] with Heaven and Earth) and, grounded in the Heaven-Earth relationship of the Earthly Paradise (Jiseon-cheonguk), establish a Heaven-human relationship of Cheonji-boeun (Grateful Reciprocation to Heaven and Earth) and an Earth-human relationship of Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals), realizing this through the Cheonji-gongsa (Reordering Works of Heaven and Earth) and spiritual cultivation (Sudo).

Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought both commonly present indigenous modernity by achieving liminality through the revitalization of correlative thinking. If Donghak Thought focused on short-term liminality and contributed to the entry into revitalization, Daesoon Thought revitalized Donghak Thought where it had failed, presenting Cham Donghak (True Eastern Learning). Consequently, Donghak Thought possesses the properties of indigenous modernity characterized by Jakran (Creating Disorder) and the liminality of Potae (Embryonic stage), while Daesoon Thought manifests the revitalization of indigenous modernity characterized by Chiran (Remedying Disorder) and the liminality of Gwanwang (Peak stage).

The correlative thinking of Donghak Thought, revitalized by Daesoon Thought, appears more concretely in Daesoon Thought's reconstruction of the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind. The correlative thinking of Daesoon Thought manifests as Eumyang-hapdeok (Virtuous Concordance of Yin and Yang), Samjae-hwakrip (Establishment of the Three Powers), and Ohaeng-gubi (Completion of the Five Elements). Unlike Donghak Thought, Daesoon Thought, in its view of the Heavenly Realm, establishes Mugeuk (Ultimate Nothingness) and Taegeuk (Supreme Ultimate) through the Tae-eul-ju (Tae-eul Mantra), achieving the Eumyang-hapdeok of the Ibeopcheon (Heaven of Principle) and the Ingyeokcheon (Personal Heaven), and re-establishes the celestial order (Cheonmun). It also reconstructs the geography of the Earth by re-establishing the Samsinsan (Three Divine Mountains), the Bumosan (Parent Mountains), the Sanwang (Mountain King), and the Haewang (Sea King). This connects to human beings, correcting the bloodlines and, through Haewon (Resolution of Grievances), aligning the Hwanggeuksin (Spirit of the August Pole) and the Myeongbu (Spirit Realm), among other aspects of the Spirit Realm (Sinmyeong-gye).

If the liminality and revitalization of religious anthropology are incomplete rites of passage that might end merely as rituals, the rite of passage in Daesoon Thought, which combines politics and edification, is a rite of passage connected to actual practice, continuing uninterrupted to this day and linking to the substance of Daesoon Jinrihoe. This harmonizes with the synchronicity of Daoism, the process philosophy of Buddhism, the correlative thinking of Confucianism, etc., forming an indigenous modernity where Eastern and Western modernities are harmonized.

The indigenous modernity manifested in the two thoughts can be summarized in detail as follows. To the public today, modernity means 'secularization,' but to researchers of 'modernity,' modernity was rather the 'rearrangement of the sacred (Seong) and the secular (Sok),' that is, the strengthening of divinity (Sinseong) through liminality. Even Western modernity, a representative example of 'secularization' today, began with Calvin's predestination and Descartes' Cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I am). The reason 'modernity' was the greatest change among the countless changes in human history is that modernity was initially, like Calvin or Descartes, a permanent and enormous change of the 'sacred and secular' spanning material and spiritual realms—that is, a strengthening of divinity. However, modernity, contrary to its original purpose, transformed into secularization emphasizing only the 'secular' (Sok), reaching a crisis where divinity is disappearing from the earth.

Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought have long been widely discussed individually in academia as East Asia's indigenous modernity in comparison to postmodern philosophy. However, existing discussions of indigenous modernity have not emphasized their shared Eastern origins with Western modernity. Furthermore, the two thoughts have not been comparatively studied in terms of the form and principles of indigenous modernity manifested in the concept of "Donghak" (Eastern Learning). This dissertation, based on the concept of multiple modernities as the 'rearrangement of the sacred and the secular,' compares the indigenous modernity achieved by the two thoughts in their views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind using the Eastern philosophical method of correlative thinking, and aims to show the ideological value of the two thoughts more clearly.

Whether 'secularization' or the 'strengthening of divinity' through the 'rearrangement of the sacred and secular,' modernity manifests as political democratization, economic industrialization, and cultural diversification. In the case of Korea, which is almost unique among former colonized nations today in having achieved all three, there was an indigenous modernity not found in other countries. That is the Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) thought, represented by Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought. The Cheon-oe-cheon thought was a response to the problem posed by Matteo Ricci before the imperialist invasions. Matteo Ricci criticized that the East Asian views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind had lost the personal divine characteristics of the Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) due to an overemphasis on Ibeophwa (rationalization) which only highlighted the attributive characteristics of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind. In response, Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought respectively presented an indigenous rearrangement of the sacred (Seong) and the secular (Sok) as an answer, integrating the Eastern and Western views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind through the concepts of the emergence of the Cheon-oe-cheon and the incarnation (Tangang) of Gucheon (Sangje). The Gucheon (Sangje) of the two thoughts, being a Cheon-oe-cheon based on correlative thinking, was able to integrate the strengths of the Eastern and Western views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind.

As a detailed methodology for comparing these two indigenous modernities, this dissertation used three methodologies: the theory of correlative thought by A.C. Graham and others, the theory of liminality by Victor Turner, and the theory of revitalization movement by Anthony Wallace. The reason for applying all three theories simultaneously is that they work organically together in comparative research. First, the theory of correlative thought clearly shows the epistemological differences between Eastern and Western ways of thinking, thereby clarifying the difference between indigenous modernity and (Western) modernity. Second, the theory of liminality is effective in explaining the process of rearrangement in modernity, which is the 'rearrangement of the sacred and the secular,' and third, the theory of revitalization is useful for explaining the succession of tradition manifested in the rearrangement process.

If the Western thought's views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind, which emphasize substance, are differentiating (Bunhwajeok), the Eastern thought's views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind, which emphasize attributes, exhibit assimilative (Donghwajeok), condensing (Eungchukjeok), and grafting (Jeophwajeok) characteristics, respectively. In response, Donghak Thought attempted to integrate the East and West by presenting the view of Heaven of the transcendent Heaven, the subsequent Gihwa (Materialization/Spiritualization) of the Earth, and an Innaechon (Man is Heaven) view of Humankind. The Cheon-oe-cheon (Heaven beyond Heaven) of Donghak, which first appeared in the approximately 4,600-year history of East Asian civilization tracing its origins from the Yellow Emperor, caused a great sensation in Joseon society at the time and developed into a large-scale peasant movement. However, Donghak Thought, which failed to overcome the limitations of Confucianism, instead remained a great Jakran (Creating Disorder) and Dongran (Causing Turmoil).

In response, Daesoon Thought, under the premise of the Incarnation of Gucheon (the Highest Heaven), introduced the concept of the divine beings of Heaven and Earth (Cheonji-sinmyeong) and revitalized the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind presented by Donghak Thought. Daesoon Thought reinterpreted Donghak Thought with the religious principles of Haewon-sangsaeng (Resolution of Grievances for Mutual Beneficence) and Boeun-sangsaeng (Grateful Reciprocation of Favors for Mutual Beneficence), and built an indigenous modernity where Heaven, Earth, and divine beings (Sinmyeong) are combined Gihwaron (theory of materialization/spiritualization) through correlative thinking applicable even to everyday affairs. In accordance with the principles of Daesoon Thought—Eumyang-hapdeok (Virtuous Concordance of Yin and Yang), Sin-in-johwa (Harmonious Union between Divine Beings and Human Beings), Haewon-sangsaeng (Resolution of Grievances for Mutual Beneficence), and Dotong-jingyeong (Perfected State of Unification with the Dao)—Daesoon Thought presented the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind of indigenous modernity, such as the Samgye (Three Realms), Hucheon (Later World), Sangsaeng (Mutual Beneficence), Sindo (Dao of Divine Beings), Jiseon-cheonguk (Earthly Paradise), and Jiseon-sinseon (Earthly Immortals).

Based on the discussions above, the value and significance of this study are as follows. First, this study presented the indigenous modernity of the two thoughts as an alternative modernity to contemporary Western modernity, which is in crisis. The discourse on the indigenous modernity of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought is a minority discourse today, but it is the only remaining discourse on modernity based on East Asian correlative thinking in the world. In the history of philosophy, there have been many cases where minority discourses transformed into mainstream discourses during times of crisis. Especially today, when humanity contemplates extinction due to the lack of an alternative modernity for the total crisis of modernity, such as the climate crisis and nuclear threats, the indigenous modernity of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, as a discourse that integrates the strengths of ancient and modern, Eastern and Western views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind through the liminality of correlative thinking, can present a practical alternative modernity in daily life.

Second, this dissertation presented the revitalization of correlative thinking as a solution for the stagnant growth of East Asian modernity. Over the past 150-plus years, East Asia, particularly the three countries of Korea, China, and Japan, which advocated the Sindo (Dao of Divine Beings) centering on Gucheon Sangje (Sangje of the Highest Heaven) and learned from Western modernity, has come to surpass the West economically. However, East Asia, finding nothing more to learn from the West, has now come to seek a new model for growth in its indigenous modernity. Accordingly, Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought, which have uniquely built indigenous modernity based on correlative thinking among the three East Asian countries, present a model to recover the lost modernity in East Asia. This is applicable not only to communities but also to individuals in East Asia suffering from identity confusion, enabling them to overcome the comparative terrestrialism-based culture of Western modernity and establish new survival strategies with indigenous modernity.

Third, this dissertation can contribute to a comparative philosophical understanding of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought across all times and places. This study, which compares the indigenous modernity of the two thoughts with Western modernity focusing on the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind, facilitates an easier understanding of the inherent significance and value of the two thoughts. The characteristics of Donghak Thought and Daesoon Thought are more easily understood through comparison with existing Eastern and Western thoughts and contemporary scientific thought.

Furthermore, the limitations of this study are as follows. First, this study focused on the correlative thinking aspect of the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind concerning indigenous modernity and thus did not sufficiently incorporate existing research on modernity. Modernity is a holistic phenomenon that has been studied in various fields beyond correlative thinking, including ecology. In the future, follow-up research on indigenous modernity is needed, based on the achievements of existing modernity studies.

Second, due to the extensive research scope of the views of Heaven, Earth, and Humankind, this study lacked detailed discussion. This study, which summarily compared the two thoughts focusing on research methodology, needs to be supplemented by interdisciplinary research.

Third, this study lacked an introduction to specific examples where the indigenous modernity of correlative thinking has been successfully implemented. For the indigenous modernity of correlative thinking to be actually applied as an alternative modernity, various application cases and research models are needed.

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